A'in-i Akbarī - The Ain-i-Akbarī, Volume 1

The beginning of the musters is made with this animal. The Kháçah elephants with their furniture and ornaments are the first which are daily brought before His Majesty, namely, ten on the first day of every solar month. After this, the Halqah elephants are mustered according to their number. On Tuesdays from ten to twenty are mustered. The Bitikchí, during the muster, must be ready to answer any questions as to the name of each animal (there are more than five thousand elephants, each having a different name. His Majesty knows to which section most of the elephants belong—ten elephants form a section of ten (daháí), and are in charge of an experienced officer); as to how each elephant came into the possession of His Majesty; the price; the quantity of food; the age of the animal; where it was born; the period of heat, and the duration of that state each time; the date when an elephant was made kháçah; its promotion in the halqahs; the time when the tusks are cut; how many times His Majesty has mounted it; how many times it was brought for riding out; the time of the last muster; the condition of the keepers; the name of the Amír in charge. For all other elephants eight things are to be reported, viz., the change of its name(?); the repetition of it; its price; how it came into the possession of His Majesty; whether it is fit for riding, or for carrying burdens; its rank; whether it has plain furniture or not; which rank the Faujdár has assigned to it. The rule is, that every Faujdár divides his elephants into four classes, separating those that are best from those that are worst, whether they are to remain with him, or whether he has to give some to other Faujdárs.

Each day five tahwílí (transferable) elephants are inspected by an experienced man. The following custom is observed: When new elephants arrive for the government, they are handed over in fifties or hundreds to experienced officers, who fix their ranks. Such elephants are called Tahwílí elephants. When His Majesty inspects them, their rank is finally settled, and the elephants are transferred to the proper sections. Every Sunday one elephant is brought before His Majesty, to be given away as a present to some deserving servant. Several halqahs are set apart for this purpose. The rank of the kháçah elephants formerly depended on the number of times they had been inspected by His Majesty; but now their precedence is fixed by the number of times His Majesty has mounted them. In the halqahs, the precedence of elephants is determined by the price. When all elephants have been mustered, the kháçah elephants are again examined, ten every day. Then come the elephants of the princes, who mostly march them past themselves. After them come the halqahs. As they are arranged in sections according to the price, some elephants have, at every muster, their value either enhanced or lowered, and are then put among their equals. For this reason, many Faujdárs are anxious to complete their sets, and place themselves for this purpose in a row at the time of the musters. His Majesty then gives the elephants to whomsoever he likes. If the number of the elephants of any Faujdár is found correct, some more are put in his charge; for such officers are thought of first. Faujdárs, whose elephants are found to be lean, are preferred, in making up the complements, to such as bring less than their original number. Each Faujdár receives some, provided he musters all his elephants. The Mushrif (accountant) receives orders where to keep the elephants.

The elephants of the grandees also, though not belonging to the fixed establishment, are almost daily brought before His Majesty, who settles their rank, and orders them to be branded with a peculiar mark. Elephants of dealers also are brought before His Majesty, who fixes their rank and value.

They begin with the stables of forty; then come the stables of the princes; then the kháçah courier horses; then the country-bred, and all other stables. When the ten muhur horses have been inspected, they bring the Gúṭs, Qisráqs, the horses on which the hunting leopards ride, and the Bárgír horses (vide p. 133, l. 12; p. 135, l. 10 from below, and A´ín 54, p. 139). The place of the horses at the musters, is determined by their value, and in the case of horses of the same value, the precedence is determined by the time of service. Before the musters, the horses are inspected by clever officers, who again fix their value, and divide them into three classes. When the rank of a horse has been put higher or lower, it is placed among his proper class-fellows. Those horses which belong to the third class, form separate stables, and are given away as presents. If horses have their value raised, they are given over to such keepers as bring to the musters either the full complement of their horses, or at least a complement not more deficient than by two. Incomplete stables are daily filled up during the musters; or if not filled up, they are put in charge of separate keepers. Twenty horses are daily mustered. On Sundays, horses are the first that are mustered. Double the usual number are then inspected. Several horses are also kept in waiting at Court, viz., one from each of the sixty to the forty muhur stables, and one more from each of the thirty to the ten muhur stables. They are given away as presents or as parts of salaries. The precedence at musters of bázár-horses is fixed according to the price. According to the number of horses available, from twenty to a hundred are daily mustered. Before the musters, experienced officers fix the prices, which are generally enhanced at the time of the parades. Horses above thirty muhurs, have their value fixed in the presence of His Majesty. A cash-keeper attached to the Statehall is entrusted with money, so that horse-dealers have not to wait long for payment of their claims. When horses have been bought, they are marked with a peculiar brand, so that there may be no fraudulent exchange.

From foresight, and on account of the large profits of the horse-dealers, His Majesty enforces a tax of three Rupees for every 'Iráqí, Mujannas (vide p. 140, note 2), and Arab, imported from Kábul and Persia; two and a half Rupees for every Turkish and Arabian horse imported from Qandahár; and two for Kábul horses, and Indian Arab breed.

The beginning is made with country-bred camels, of which five qaṭárs are daily inspected. Those pançadís (officers in charge of five hundred camels) come first who are oldest. The Head Dárogah has the permission to parade before His Majesty a qaṭár of excellent Bughdís and Jammázahs. Then come the Bughdís, and after them the Jammázahs, the G'hurds, the Loks, and all other camels. The commencement of the musters takes place on Fridays, on which day double the usual number marches past. The precedence of camels is determined by their value.

Cattle are mustered according to their value, ten yokes daily. The muster commences on Wednesdays, on which day double the usual number is inspected.

On the day of the Díwálí—an old festival of this country, on which the Hindus pray to the cow, as they look upon reverence shewn to cows as worship—several cows are adorned and brought before His Majesty. People are very fond of this custom.

The musters of this beast of burden commence on Thursdays, when six qaṭárs are inspected in order of their value. Mules are mustered once a year.

Formerly all musters took place as above described. But now horses are inspected on Sundays; camels, cows, and mules, on Mondays; the soldiers, on Tuesdays; on Wednesdays, His Majesty transacts matters of Finance; on Thursdays, all judicial matters are settled; Fridays His Majesty spends in the Harem; on Saturdays, the elephants are mustered.

His Majesty has taught men something new and practical, and has made an excellent rule, which protects the animal, guards the stores, teaches equity, reveals the excellent, and stimulates the lazy man. Experienced people saw their wisdom increased, and such as inquired into this secret, obtained their desires.

His Majesty first determined the quantity of daily food for each domestic animal, and secondly determined the results, which different quanta of food produce in the strength of an animal. In his practical wisdom and from his desire of teaching people, His Majesty classifies the dishonest practices of men. This is done by the Págosht regulation. From time to time an experienced man is sent to the stables of these dumb creatures. He inspects them, and measures their fatness and leanness. At the time of the musters also the degrees of fatness or leanness are first examined into, and reports are made accordingly. His Majesty then inspects the animals himself, and decreases or increases the degrees of their fatness or leanness as reported, fixing at the same time the fine for leanness. If, for some reason, the allowance of grain or grass of an animal had been lessened, proper account is taken of such a decrease. The leanness of an elephant has been divided into thirteen classes. * * *²

For all other animals beside the elephant, six degrees have been laid down, viz. the second, third, fifth, seventh, ninth, and tenth [degrees of the thirteen for the elephant]. And as it is the custom of the Faujdárs, to mark, at the time of the musters of the halqahs, one halqah which is the best in their opinion, and to put separate that which is the worst, the officers who inquire into the leanness and fatness, deduct fifty per cent. from the degree of the former, and count one half for the latter halqah. If the Faujdár works in concert with the Dároghah, and both sign the entries in the day-book, the Faujdár is responsible for one-fourth, and the Dároghah for the remaining part of the food. The leanness of old elephants is fixed by the condition of the whole halqah. In the horse stables the grooms, water-carriers, and sweepers are fined one-fourth of the wages. In the case of camels, the Dároghah is fined the amount of the grain, and the driver for the share of the grass. In the case of oxen used for carriages, the Dároghah is fined for the part of the grass and the grain; but the driver is not liable. In case of heavy carriages, half the fine is remitted.

His Majesty is desirous of establishing harmony among people of different classes. He wishes to arrange feasts of friendship and union, so that every thing may be done with propriety and order. But as all men do not possess a mind capable of selecting that which is true, and as every ear is not fit to listen to wisdom, His Majesty holds social meetings for amusement, to which he invites a large number of people. Through the careful arrangements of His Majesty, the court has been changed from a field of ambitious strife to a temple of a higher world, and the egotism and conceit of men have been directed to the worship of God. Even superficial, worldly people thus learn zeal and attachment, and are induced by these gatherings to enquire after the road of salvation.¹

The manner of fighting of this animal is very interesting, and its method of stooping down and rising up again is a source of great amusement. Hence His Majesty pays much attention to this animal, and has succeeded in training this stubborn and timid creature. One hundred and one deer are kháçah; each has a name, and some peculiar qualities. A keeper is placed over every ten. There are three kinds of fighting deer, first, those which fight with such as are born in captivity and with wild ones; secondly, such as fight best with tame ones; and thirdly, such as fiercely attack wild deer. The fights are conducted in three different ways. First, according to number, the first fighting with the second, the third with the fourth, and so on, for the whole. At the second go, the first fights with the third, the second with the fourth, and so on. If a deer runs away, it is placed last; and if it is known to have run away three times, it ceases to be kháçah. Betting on these fights is allowed; the stake does not exceed 5 dáms. Secondly, with those belonging to the princes. Five kháçah pair fight with each other, and afterwards, two kháçah pair from His Majesty's hunting-ground; then five other kháçah pair. At the same time two pair from the deer park of His Majesty's hunting-ground fight, and afterwards five kháçah deer engage with five deer of the eldest prince. Then fourteen kháçah pair engage with each other, and fight afterwards with the deer of the prince, till the fight with the deer of the prince is finished. Upon this, the deer of princes fight with each other, and then kháçah deer. The betting on such fights must not exceed one muhur. Thirdly, with the deer of other people.

His Majesty selects forty-two from his nearer friends, and appoints every two of them as opponents, forming thus one and twenty sets. The first winners receive each thirty deer, and all others get one less, so that the last get each eleven. To every set a Mal,¹ a water-buffalo, a cow, a quchqár (fighting ram), a goat, and a cock, are given. Fights between cows and goats are rarely mentioned to have been held in ancient times. Before the fighting commences, two kháçah deer are brought in trimmed up, and are set against two deer belonging to people of various sets. First, with a deer belonging to a powerful grandee, and then the fight takes place before His Majesty. If a general assembly is announced, the fight may also take place, if the deer belongs to a commander of One Thousand. The betting on kháçah deer is eight muhurs, and on deer belonging to one of a set, five muhurs, if it be an Aṭkal; and four, if an Anín. As deer have not equal strength and impetuosity of attack, the rule among deer-keepers is, once to select each of their deer in turn and take it to the arena. Such deer are called Anín. Another then estimates its strength, and brings a deer as opponent. The latter is called Aṭkal. In case of Mals, the betting is five muhurs; for water buffaloes and cocks, four; for cows and fighting rams, and goats, two. A commander of One Thousand is allowed to bet six muhurs on a kháçah deer; and with one of his own rank,² 3¾ muhurs, if the bet is on an Aṭkal; and three on an Anín; and so also in the same proportion on Mals, water-buffaloes, and cocks; but on cows, fighting rams, and goats, two. A commander of Nine Hundred may bet on a kháçah deer 50 Rupees; and with one of his own rank, 30¼ R. on an Aṭkal, and 25 R. on an Anín; on a Mal 31/8 muhurs; on a water-buffalo and a cock 3¼ M.; and on all other animals, 1½ M. A commander of Eight Hundred is allowed to bet 48 R. on a kháçah deer; with one of his rank, 30 R. on an Aṭkal; and 24 R. on an Anín; on a Mal 31/3 M.; on a water-buffalo and cock, 2½ M., and on other animals, as before. A commander of Seven Hundred is allowed to bet 44 R. on a kháçah deer; with one of his own rank on an Aṭkal 27½ R.; on an Anín 22 R.; on a Mal 3 M; on other animals as before. A Commander of Six Hundred may bet 40 R. on a kháçah deer; with one of his own rank, 25 R. on an Aṭkal; 20 R. on an Anín; on other animals as before. A Commander of Five Hundred may bet 4 M. [36 R.] on a kháçah deer; with one of his own rank 2½ M. on an Aṭkal, and 2 M. on a Anín; on other animals, as the preceding. A Commander of Four Hundred may bet 34 R. on a kháçah deer; with one of his own rank 21½ R. on an Aṭkal; 17 R. on an Anín; on a Mal 2¾ M.; on a water-buffalo and cock, 2 M.; on a cow, a fighting ram, and goat, 1 M. A Commander of Three Hundred may bet 30 R. on a kháçah deer; with one of his own rank, 18¾ R. on an Aṭkal; 15 R. on an Anín; 2½ M. on a Mal; on other animals as the preceding. A Commander of Two Hundred may bet 24 R. on a kháçah deer; with one of his own rank 15 R. on an Aṭkal, 12 R. on an Anín, and on other animals as before. A Commander of One Hundred may bet 2 M. on a kháçah deer; with one of his own rank 1½ M. on an Aṭkal; 1 M. on an Anín; and on other animals as before. A Commander of Eighty may bet 16 R. on a kháçah deer; with one of his own rank 10 R. on an Aṭkal; 8 R. on an Anín; 17 R. on a Mal; 1½ M. on a water-buffalo and a cock; on other animals as before. A Commander of Forty may bet 12 R. on a kháçah deer; with one of his own rank 7½ R. on an Aṭkal; 6 R. on a Anín; on other animals as before. A Commander of Twenty may bet 10 R. on a kháçah deer; 6½ R. with one of his own rank on an Aṭkal; 5 R. on an Anín; on other animals as before, A Commander of Ten may bet 8 R. on a kháçah deer, and 5 R. on an Aṭkal, with one of his own rank; 4 R. on an Anín; on other animals as before. People who hold no mançabs, bet 4 R. on a kháçah deer; with one of their own rank, 2½ R. on an Aṭkal; 2 R. on an Anín; 15 R. on a Mal; on other animals as before.

But if the opponent hold a less rank, the amount of the bet is determined according to the amount which the opponent is allowed to bet on an Anín. When the last pair comes, the betting is everywhere on the deer. A fourth part of what people take from each other in Mal fights, is given to the victorious wrestler. The presents which His Majesty makes on such occasions, have no limits.

The rule is that every one of such as keep animals brings on the fourteenth night of the moon one deer to the fight. The Bitikchí of this department appoints half the number of deer as Aníns, and the other half as Aṭkals. He then writes the names of the Aṭkals on paper slips, folds them up, and takes them to His Majesty, who takes up one. The animal chosen has to fight with an Anín. As such nights are clear, fights are generally announced for that time.

Besides, there are two other classes of deer, kotal, and half kotal. The number of each is fixed. As often the number of kháçah deer decreases, the deficiency is made up from the kotal deer; and the deficiency in the number of kotals is made up from half kotals. One pair of kotals also is brought to the fight, so that they may be tried. Hunters supply continually wild deer, and bring them to His Majesty, who fixes the price. A fat superior deer costs 2 M.; a thin superior one, 1 M. to 15 R.; a fat middling one, 12 R.; Do. lean, 8 R.; a third class fat one, 7 R.; Do. thin, 5 R.; a fourth class fat one, 4 R.; Do. lean, 2½ to 2 R.

Deer are kept and fed as follows: Kháçah deer selected for fighting before His Majesty, get 2 s. grain, ½ s. boiled flour, 1/3 s. butter, and 1 d. for grass. Such as are kept on His Majesty's hunting-grounds, kotals, and fighting deer of the sets, get 1¾ s. of grain, and flour and butter as before. The grass is supplied by each amateur himself. All kháçah, home-bred, kotal deer, and those of His Majesty's hunting-ground, have each one keeper. The fighting deer of the sets have one keeper for every two; the single last one has a keeper for itself. Nothing is given for grass. Deer which are given to people to have them fattened, get 1¾ s. grain, and ½ d. for grass. They have one keeper for every four; but one for every two, if they are fit to become kháçah. Some deer are also sent to other towns; they get 1½ s. grain, and have each one keeper. If deer are newly caught, they get no regular food for seven days, after which they get ½ s. of grain for a fortnight. They then get 1 s., and when one month is over, 1½ s.

In the deer park, Mançabdárs, Ahadís, and other soldiers are on staff-employ. The pay of foot-soldiers varies from 80 to 400 d.

His Majesty has 12,000 deer; they are divided into different classes, and proper regulations are made for each of them. There is also a stud for deer, in which new results are obtained. A large female gets 1½ s. grain, and ½ d. for grass. A new born deer drinks the milk of the dam for two months, which is reckoned as equivalent to ¼ s. of grain. Afterwards, every second month, the allowance is increased by a quarter ser of grain, so that after a period of two years, it gets the same as its dam. For grass, ¼ d. is given from the seventh to the tenth month. Young male ones also get weaned after two months, when they get 3/8 s. of grain, which is increased by that quantity every second month, so that, after two years, they get 2¼ s. From the fifth to the eighth month, they get ½ d. for grass, after which period they get ½ d. for grass.

I have given a short description of animal fights as announced for general assemblies. His Majesty announces them also for day time; but as often a more important act of worship is to be performed, he announces them for the night. Or else His Majesty thinks of God, and seeks for wisdom in self-examination; he cares neither for cold nor heat; he spends the time which others idle away in sleep, for the welfare of the people, and prefers labour to comfort.

Regulations for house-building in general are necessary; they are required for the comfort of the army, and are a source of splendour for the government. People that are attached to the world will collect in towns, without which there would be no progress. Hence His Majesty plans splendid edifices, and dresses the work of his mind and heart in the garment of stone and clay. Thus mighty fortresses have been raised, which protect the timid, frighten the rebellious, and please the obedient. Delightful villas, and imposing towers have also been built. They afford excellent protection against cold and rain, provide for the comforts of the princesses of the Harem, and are conducive to that dignity which is so necessary for worldly power.

Everywhere also Saráis have been built, which are the comfort of travellers and the asylum of poor strangers. Many tanks and wells are being dug for the benefit of men and the improvement of the soil. Schools and places of worship are being founded, and the triumphal arch of knowledge is newly adorned.

His Majesty has enquired into every detail connected with this department, which is so difficult to be managed, and requires such large sums. He has passed new regulations, kindled the lamp of honesty, and put a stock of practical knowledge into the hands of simple and inexperienced men.

Many people are desirous of building houses; but honesty and conscientiousness are rare, especially among traders. His Majesty has carefully inquired into their profits and losses, and has fixed the prices of articles in such a manner, that both parties are satisfied.

Red sandstone costs 3 d. per man. It is obtainable in the hills of Fathpúr Síkṛí, His Majesty's residence, and may be broken from the rocks at any length or breadth. Clever workmen chisel it so skilfully, as no turner could do with wood; and their works vie with the picture book of Mání [the great painter of the Sassanides]. Pieces of red standstone (sang i gulúlah), broken from the rocks in any shape, are sold by the p'harí, which means a heap of such stones, without admixture of earth, 3 gaz long, 2½ g. broad, and 1 g. high. Such a heap contains 172 mans, and has a value of 250 d., i. e., at the rate of 1 d. 11¼ j. per man.

Bricks are of three kinds: burnt, half burnt, unburnt. Though the first kind are generally made very heavy, they weigh in the average three sers, and cost 30 d. per mille. The second class cost 24 d., and the third 10 d. per thousand.¹

Wood. Eight kinds of wood are in general use. 1. Sísauṉ, unrivalled for its beauty and durability. A block 1 Iláhí gaz long, and 8 Ṭassújes broad and high, costs 15 d. 6 j. But if the height be only 5 or 6 Ṭ., 11 d. 10¾ j. Other sizes according to the same proportion. 2. Nazhú, called in Hindí Jíḍh.¹ A beam, 10 Ṭ. broad and high, costs per gaz 5 d. 13¾ j.; and a half size beam, from 7 to 9 Ṭ. broad and high, costs per gaz 5 d. 3¾ j. 3. Dasang (?), called in Hindí Karí; a beam 3 Ṭ. broad, and 4 gaz long, costs 5 d. 17½ j. 4. Ber,² 1 Ṭ. broad and high, 4 gaz long, 5 d. 17¾ j.; so also Tút, or Mulbery. 5. Mughílán (Babúl), of the same cubic content as No. 4., 5 d. 2 j. 6. Sirs, size as before, 10 d. 4 j. 7. Dayál, same size, first quality 8 d. 22¼ j.; second quality, 8 d. 6½ j. 8. Bakáyin, same size, 5 d. 2 j.

Gaj i Shírín, or sweet limestone. There is a quarry near Bahírah. When a merchant brings it, it costs 1 R. per three mans; but if any one sends his own carriers, only 1 d. Sangín qal'í, per man 5 d. 5 j. Çadafí 5 d. Chúnah, or quick lime, 2 d. per man; it is mostly boiled out of kangur, a kind a solid earth resembling stone in hardness.

Iron cramps, if tinned, 13 for 18 d.; plain ones, for 6 d.

Iron door-knockers, from Persia and Túrán, tinned; large ones, 8 d. per pair; small ones, 4 d. Indian do., tinned, 5½ d.; plain ones, 4 d. 12 j.

Gul Mekh (large nails with broad heads), 12 d. per ser. Dínárínails, 5 d. per ser. Gogah, or small nails, tinned, first quality 7 d. for one hundred; second quality, 5 d.; smallest, 4 d.

Screws and nuts, chiefly used for doors and boxes. Tinned, 12 d. per ser; plain, 4 d.

Rings, tinned, 6 d. per ser; plain, 4 d.

K'haprel, or tiles. They are one hand long and ten fingers broad, are burnt, and are used for the roofs of houses, as a protection against heat and cold. Plain ones, 86 d. per mille; enamelled, 30 d. for ten.

Qulbah, or spouts, to lead off water. Three for 2 d.

Báṉs, or bamboo. It is used for spears. First quality, 15 d. for twenty pieces; second quality, 12 d. for do.; third quality, 10 d. for do. The price of some kinds of bamboo is much higher. Thus a peculiar kind is sold at 8 Ashrafís [Muhurs] per piece. They are used for making thrones. Bamboo, at a rupee per piece, is common. Patal is made of the reed which is used for qalams (pens). It is used for covering ceilings. First quality, cleaned, 1½ d. per square gaz; second quality, 1 d. Sometimes they sell patal at 2 d. for pieces 2 gaz long, and 1½ g. broad. Sirkí is made of very fine qalam reeds, looks well, and is very smooth; it is sold at the rate of 1½ d. per pair, 1½ g. long, and 16 girihs broad. The ceilings and walls of houses are adorned with it.

K'has is the sweet-smelling root of a kind of grass, which grows along the banks of rivers. During summer, they make screens of it, which are placed before the door and sprinkled with water. This renders the air cool and perfumed. Price, 1½ R. per man.

Káh i chappar (reeds for thatching) is sold in bundles, which are called in Hindí púlah, per ser from 100 to 10 d.

Bhus, or wheat straw, used for mixing with mortar, 3 d. per man.

Káh i Dáb'h, straw, &c., which is put on roofs, 4 d. for a load of 2 mans.

Múnj, the bark of qalam reeds, used for making ropes to fasten the thatching, 20 d. per man.

San is a plant. Peasants mix it with quicklime. People also make ropes of it for well buckets, &c., 3 d. per man.

Gum, of an inferior quantity, is mixed with quicklime, 70 d. per man.

Sirísh i káhí, or reed glue, is mixed with sweet limestone, 4 d. per ser.

Luk is the flower-bunch of the reed which is used for matting. People burn it, and use it as a candle. It is also mixed with quicklime and Qal'í. Price, 1 R. per man.

Símgil (silver clay) is a white and greasy clay, 1 d. per man. It is used for white-washing houses. It keeps a house cool and looks well. Gil i surhh, or red clay, called in Hindí gerú, 40 d. per man. There is a quarry of it in the hills of Gwáliár.

Glass is used for windows; price, 1 R. for 1¼ s., or one pane for 4 d.

Gilkárs (workers in lime), first class workmen, 7 d.; second class, 6 d.; third class, 5 d.

Sangtarásh (stone-masons). The tracer gets 6 d. for each gaz; one who does plain work, 5 d. A labourer employed in quarries gets for every man he breaks, 22 j.

Carpenters, first class, 7 d.; second do., 6 d.; third do., 4 d.; fourth do., 3 d.; fifth do., 2 d. For plain job-work, a first class carpenter gets 1 d. 17 j. for one gaz; second class do., 1 d. 6 j.; third class do., 21 j.

Pinjarah sáz (Lattice work and wicker work). First, when the pieces are joined (fastened with strings), and the interstices be dodecagonal, 24 d. for every square gaz; when the interstices form twelve circles, 22 d.; when hexagonal, 18 d.; when ja'farí [or rhombus-like, one diagonal being vertical the other horizontal], 16 d.; when shaṭranjí [or square fields, as on a chess board], 12 d. for every square gaz.

Secondly, when the work is ghair waçlí (the sticks not being fastened with strings, but skilfully and tightly interwoven), for first class work, 48 d. per square gaz; for second class do., 40 d.

Arrahkash (one who saws beams). For job-work, per square gaz 2½ d., if sísauṉ wood; if nazhú wood, 2 d. A labourer employed for the day, 2 d. There are three men for every saw, one above, two below.

Bíldárs (diggers), first class, daily 3½ d.; second class do., 3 d. If employed by the job, for building fortress walls with battlements, 4 d. per gaz; for laying foundations, 2½ d.; for all other walls, 2 d. For digging ditches, ½ d. per gaz.

The gaz of a labourer contains 32 ṭassújes.

Cháh-kan, or well diggers, first class work men, 2 d. per gaz; second class do., 1½ d; third class do., 1½ d.

Ghauṭah khur, or well-divers. They clean wells. In the cold season, 4 d. per diem; in the hot season, 3 d. By the job, 2 R. for cleaning a depth of one gaz.

Khisht tarásh, or tile makers, for 100 moulds, smoothened, 8 d.

Surkhíkob (pounders of old bricks), 1½ d. for a heap of 8 mans.

Glass-cutters, 100 d. per gaz.

Bamboo-cutters, 2 d. per diem.

Chapparband, or thatchers, 3 d. per diem; if done by the job, 24 d. for 100 gaz.

Patalband (vide p. 224), 1 d. for 4 gaz.

Lak'hírah. They varnish reeds, &c., with lac. Wages, 2 d. per diem.

A´bkash, or water-carriers. First class, 3 d. per diem; second class do., 2 d. Such water-carriers as are used for furnishing house-builders with water for mortar and quicklime, get 2 d. per diem.

Stonebuildings. For 12 gaz, one p'harí (vide above A´ín 86) is required; also 75 mans chúnah; but if the walls be covered with red stone, 30 mans chúnah are required per gaz.

Brickbuildings. For every gaz, there are required 250 bricks of three ser each, 8 mans chúnah, and 2 m. 27 s. pounded brick (surkhí).

Claybuildings. 300 bricks are required for the same; each brick-mould contains 1 s. of earth and ½ s. of water.

Astarkárí work. For every gaz, 1 man chúnah, 10 s. qal'í, 14 s. surkhí, and ¼ s. san (vide p. 224) are required.

Çandalahkárí work. For every gaz, 7 s. of qal'í, and 3 s. surkhí are required.

Safídkárí work. 10 s. of qal'í are required per gaz.

Gajkárí work (white-washing). For walls and ceilings, 10 s. per gaz; for pantries, 6 s.; chimneys, 10 s.

Windows require 24 s. of lime, 2½ s. of glass, 4 s. of sirísh i káhí (putty).

Plaster for walls, for 14 gaz 1 m. of straw, and 20 m. earth; for roofs and floors, do. for 10 gaz. For ceilings, and the inside of walls, do. for 15 gaz.

Lac (varnish work) used for chighs [sliced bamboo sticks, placed horizontally, and joined by strings, with narrow interstices between the sticks. They are painted, and are used as screens]. If red, 4 s. of lac, and 1 s. of vermilion; if yellow, 4 s. of lac, 1 s. of zarníkh (auripigment). If green, ¼ s. of indigo is mixed with the lac, and zarníkh is added; if black, 4 s. of lac and 8 s. of indigo.

Whatever quantity of wood be used, the chippings (?) are reckoned at one-eighth (?). In Sísauṉ wood, per ṭassúj, 26¼ sers, 15 tánks; Babúl wood 23½ s. 5 d.; Sirs wood, 21½ s. 15 tánks; Nazhú wood, 20 s.; Ber wood, 18½ s.; Dayál wood, 17 s. 20 tánks.

His Majesty, from his practical knowledge, has for several reasons experimented on the weight of different kinds of wood, and has thus adorned the market place of the world. One cubic gaz of dry wood of every kind has been weighed, and their differences have thus been established. Khanjak wood has been found to be the heaviest, and Safídár the lightest wood. I shall mention 72 kinds of wood.

The weight of one cubic gaz of

In the above weights, the ser has been taken at 28 dáms.

His Majesty guides the Imperial Army by his excellent advice and counsel, and checks in various ways attempts at insubordination. He has divided the army, on account of the multitude of the men, into several classes, and has thereby secured the peace of the country.

With some tribes, His Majesty is content, if they submit; he does not exact much service from them, and thus leads many wild races towards civilization.

The Zamindárs of the country furnish more than four millions, four hundred thousand men, as shall be detailed below (Third Book).

Some troopers are compelled by His Majesty to mark their horses with the Imperial brand. They are subject to divisions into ranks, and to musters.

Some soldiers are placed under the care and guidance of one commander. They are called Ahadís, because they are fit for a harmonious unity. His Majesty believes some capable of commanding, and appoints them as commanders.

A large number are worthy but poor; they receive the means of keeping a horse, and have lands assigned to themselves, without being obliged to mark their horses with the Imperial brand. Túránís and Persians get 25 Rupees; and Hindústánís, 20 R. If employed to collect the revenue, they get 15 R. Such troopers are called Baráwardí.

Some Commanders who find it troublesome to furnish men, get a number of such soldiers as accept the Imperial brand. Such troops are called Dákhilís.

In the contingent of a Commander (mançabdár) of Ten Thousand, other mançabdárs as high as Hazárís (Commanders of One Thousand) serve; in the contingent of a Commander of Eight Thousand, Mançabdárs up to Hashtçadís (Commanders of Eight Hundred) serve; in the contingent of a Commander of Seven Thousand, Mançabdárs up to Haftçadís (Commanders of Seven Hundred) serve; in the contingent of a Commander of Five Thousand, other Mançabdárs as high Pançadís (commanders of Five Hundred) serve; and in the contingent of a Pançadí, Mançabdárs as high as Çadís (Commanders of One Hundred) serve. Mançabdárs of lower ranks do not serve in the contingents of high Mançabdárs.

Some Commanders also receive auxiliaries. Such reserves are called Kumakís.

At the present time, those troopers are preferred whose horses are marked with the Imperial brand. This class of soldiers is superior to others. His Majesty's chief object is to prevent the soldiers from borrowing horses (for the time of musters), or exchanging them for worse ones, and to make them take care of the Imperial horses; for he knows that avarice makes men so short-sighted, that they look upon a loss as a gain. In the beginning of the present reign, when His Majesty was still ‘behind the veil,’ many of his servants were given to dishonest practices, lived without check, and indulged, from want of honour, in the comforts of married life. Low, avaricious men sold their horses, and were content to serve as foot-soldiers, or brought instead of a superior horse, a tatoo that looked more like an ass. They were magniloquent in their dishonesty and greediness of pay, and even expressed dissatisfaction, or rebelled. Hence His Majesty had to introduce the Descriptive Roll System, and to make the issue of pay dependent upon the inspection of these rolls (vide below A´ín 7). This stopped, in a short time, much lawlessness, and regenerated the whole military system. But at that time the regulations regarding the Imperial brand were not issued, as His Majesty had adopted the advice of some inexperienced men, who look upon branding an animal as an act of cruelty; hence avaricious men (who cannot distinguish that which is good from that which is bad, having neither respect for themselves nor their master, and who think to promote a cause by ruining it, thus acting against their own interest) adopted other vicious practices, which led to a considerable want of efficiency in the army. Horse borrowing was then the order of the day. His Majesty, therefore, made the branding of the horses compulsory, in addition to the Descriptive Roll System. Easy-minded idlers thus passed through a school of discipline and became worthy men, whilst importunate, lowmen were taught honorableness and manliness. The unfeeling and avaricious learned the luxury of magnanimity. The army resembled a newly irrigated garden. Even for the Treasury the new regulations proved beneficial. Such are the results which wisdom and practical knowledge can produce! Branding a horse may indeed inflict pain; but when viewed from a higher point, it is the cause of much satisfaction to the thinking man.

In the 18th year of his reign, His Majesty introduced the branding system [vide p. 140, note 1]. The ranks of the men were also laid down in the best manner, and the classification of the animals belonging to the army was attended to. The requirements for each were noted down, and excellent regulations were issued. The maximum and minimum prices were enquired into by His Majesty, and average prices were fixed. A proper check by accounts was enforced, and regulations on this subject were laid down. The Bakhshís were also freed from the heavy responsibility of bringing new men, and every thing went on smoothly.

1. Horses. They have been divided into seven classes. The rate of their daily food has also been fixed. These seven classes are Arabs, Persian horses, Mujannas, Turkí horses, Yábús, Tázís, and Janglah horses.

The first class are either Arab bred, or resemble them in gracefulness and prowess. They cost 720 dáms per mensem; and get daily 6 s. of grain (the price of which, in the estimates for each animal, is put down at 12 d. per man), 2½ d. of g'hí, 2 d. for sugar, and 3 d. for grass. Also, for a jul, artak, yálposh, girth (His Majesty does not call it tang, but farákhí), gaddí, nakhtahband, qaizah (which the vulgar pronounces qáizah), magasrán, curry-comb, hatt'hí (a bag made of horse hair for washing the horse), towel, páiband, nails, &c., [vide p. 136], 70 d. per mensem, which outlay is called kharj i yaráq i asp (outlay for the harness of the horse). Besides, 60 d. for the saddle, and an apchí (?) every second month; 7 d. per mensem for shoes; and 63 d. for a groom, who gets double this allowance, if he takes charge of two horses. Total, 479 d. But as His Majesty cares for the comfort of the army, and enquires into the satisfactory condition of the soldiers, he increased, in the very beginning, this allowance of 479 d. by 81 d.; and when the value of the Rupee was increased from 35 to 40 dáms, His Majesty granted a second additional allowance of 80 d. This coin [the Rupee] is always counted at 40 d. in salaries. Afterwards, a third additional allowance of 2 R. (80 d.) was ordered to be given for each class of horses, except Janglahs, which horses are now-a-days entirely left out in the accounts.

The second class are horses bred in Persia, or such as resemble Persian horses in shape and bearing. Monthly allowance, 680 d. Of this, 458 d. are necessary expenses, being 21 d. less than the former, viz. 10 d. for the yaráq, 10 d. for saddle and bridle, and 1 d. for shoes. The first increase which was given, amounted to 67 d.; the second, to 75 d.; the third to 80 d. Total 680 d.

The third class, or Mujannas horses, resemble Persian horses [vide p. 140, note 2], and are mostly Turkí, or Persian geldings. Monthly cost 560 d. Of this, 358 d. are for necessaries. The allowance for these horses is 100 d. less than the preceding, viz., 30 d. less for sugar; 30 d. less for saddle, bridle, &c. 15 d. less in g'hí; 3 d. less for the groom; 2 d. less for shoeing. First increase sanctioned by His Majesty, 72 d.; second, 50 d.; third, 80 d.

The fourth class are horses imported from Túrán; though strong and well-formed, they do not come up to the preceding. Monthly allowance, 480 d. Of this, 298 d. are for necessaries. The allowance is 60 d. less than for Mujannas horses, viz., 30 d. less for sugar, 30d. less for grass; 10 d. less for the yaráq; 4 d. less for the saddle, bridle, &c. 2 d. less for shoeing; 2 d. less for g'hí. But the daily allowance of grain was increased by 2 sers (which amounts to 18 d. per mensem), as the sugar had been left out. First increase 52 d.; second, 50 d.; third 80 d.

The fifth class (yábú horses) are bred in this country, but fall short in strength and size. Their performances also are mostly bad. They are the offspring of Turkí horses with an inferior breed. Monthly cost 400 d. Of this, 239 d. are for necessaries. The allowance is 59 d. less than the preceding; viz., 28 d. for g'hí; 15 d. less for the groom; 10 d. less for the yaráq; and 6 d. less for the saddle, bridle, &c. First increase, 41 d.; second increase, 40 d.; third, 80 d.

The last two classes also are mostly Indian breed. The best kind is called Tázís; middling ones, Janglahs; inferior ones, Tátús.

Good mares are reckoned as Tázís; if not, they are counted as Janglahs.

1. Tázís. Monthly cost, 320 d., of which 188 d. are for necessaries. The allowance is 51 d. less than for the Yábú, viz., 18 d. less for grain, as they only get 6 sers per diem; 15 d. less for grass; 10 d. less for g'hí and sugar; 8 d. less for yaráq. First increase, 22 d.; second, 30 d.; third, 80 d.

2. Janglahs. Monthly cost, 240 d., of which 145½ d. are for necessaries. The allowance is 42½ d. less than for Tázís. The daily allowance of grain has been fixed at 5 sers. Hence there are 15 d. less for grass; 9 d. less for grain; 6 d. less for g'hí and molasses; 4½ d. less for the yaráq; 2 d. less for shoeing. First increase, 29½ d.; second 25 d.; third, 40 d.

Formerly, mules were reckoned as Tází horses; but now-a-days, as Janglahs.

For Tátús the monthly expenditure is 160 d.; but this animal is now altogether thrown out.

Note by the Translator. We may arrange Abulfazl's items in a tabular form. From several remarks in Badáoní, we may conclude that the horses of the Imperial army were mostly fourth and sixth class horses. The exportation of horses from Hindustán was strictly prohibited by Akbar, who made the kotwáls responsible for it; vide Bad, II, p. 390, l. 5 from below. Many recruits on joining the contingent of a Mançabdár. brought horses with them, for which the Mançabdár received from the Treasury an allowance according to the following table.

The allowance of sugar, or molasses, according to Abulfazl ceases from Class IV.; but as he goes on mentioning it in the inferior classes, I have made brackets. G'hí and molasses were generally given together; vide p. 135.

2. Elephants. The branded elephants of the army are divided into seven classes: Mastí, Shergír, Sádah, Manjholah, Karha, P'handurkiya, and Mokal, elephants; but there are no subdivisions, as in His Majesty's elephant stables [vide p. 124, l. 17].

The monthly allowance for Mast elephants is 1320 dáms [33 Rupees]. Daily allowance of grain, 2½ mans. No elephant has more than three servants, a Maháwat, a Bhoí, and a Meth, of whom the first gets 120 d., and the two last 90 d. An increase of 120 d. was given. From the beginning elephants were branded; but now certain differences are made.

Shergír Elephants. Monthly cost, 1100 d., which is 220 d. less than the former. Grain, 2 m. per diem, which makes 180 d. less per mensem; also 15 d. less for the Maháwat and the Bhoí. His Majesty increased the allowance by 110 d.

Sádah Elephants. Monthly cost, 800 d., which is 300 d. less than the preceding. Grain 1½ m. per diem, which gives 180 d. less per month. Besides 30 d. less for the Meth, and 15 d. less for the Maháwat and the Bhoí. An increase of 50 d. was sanctioned.

Manjholah Elephants. Monthly cost, 600 d. Grain 1 m. The decrease is the same as in the preceding; but an additional allowance of 90 d. was sanctioned.

Karha Elephants. Monthly cost, 420 d. Grain, 30 s. Hence there is a decrease of 30 d. on this account, and of 15 d. for the Maháwat. No Bhoí is allowed. The additional grant is 60 d.

P'handurkiya Elephants. Monthly cost, 300 d. Grain, 15 s. per diem, which gives a decrease of 135 d. per mensem. Only one servant is allowed, at 60 d. per month. An additional grant of 105 d. was sanctioned.

Mokal elephants were formerly not counted. Now they are considered worthy of entering the classes. Monthly allowance, 280 d.

In all payments on account of elephants, dáms are taken, not rupees, so that there is no possibility of fluctuation.

3. Camels. Monthly cost, 240 d. Grain, 6 s.; grass, 1 d.; furniture, 20 d.; the driver, 60 d. An addition of 58 d. was sanctioned; and when the value of the Rupee was fixed at 40 dáms, 20 d. more were allowed.

4. Oxen. Monthly allowance, 120 d. Grain, 4s.; grass 1 d.; furniture, 6 d. Additional grant, 38 d. At the time when the value of the rupee was raised, 10 d. more were given.

5. Oxen for the waggons. For each waggon, the monthly expenditure is 600 d., viz., 480 d. for four oxen; 120 d. for grease, repairs, and additional comforts.

Elephants and waggons are only allowed to Mançabdárs, and to those who bring good horses and camels, and middling oxen to be branded.

Wise inquirers follow out the same principles, and the people of the present age do not differ in opinion from those of ancient times. They all agree that if that which is numerous be not pervaded by a principle of harmony, the dust of disturbances will not settle down, and the troubles of lawlessness will not cease to rise. It is so with the elements: as long as the uniting principle is absent, they are dead, and incapable of exhibiting the wonders of the kingdoms of nature. Even animals form unions among themselves, and avoid wilful violence; hence they live comfortably, and watch over their advantages and disadvantages. But men, from the wickedness of their passions, stand much more in need of a just leader, round whom they may rally; in fact their social existence depends upon their being ruled by a monarch; for the extraordinary wickedness of men, and their inclination to that which is evil, teach their passions and lusts new ways of perversity, and even cause them to look upon committing bloodshed and doing harm as a religious command.¹ To disperse this cloud of ignorance, God chooses one, whom he guides with perfect help and daily increasing favor. That man will quell the strife among men by his experience, intrepidity, and magnanimity, and thus infuse into them new vigour.

But as the strength of one man is scarcely adequate to such an arduous undertaking, he selects, guided by the light of his knowledge, some excellent men to help him, appointing at the same time servants for them. For this cause did His Majesty establish the ranks of the Mançabdárs, from the Dahbáshí (Commander often) to the Dah Hazárí (Commander of Ten Thousand), limiting, however, all commands above Five Thousand, to his august sons.

The deep-sighted saw a sign, and enquirers got a hint from above, when they found the value of the letters of God's holy name;² they read in it glad tidings for the present illustrious reign, and considered it a most auspicious omen. The number of Mançabs is sixty-six, the same as the value of the letters in the name of Allah, which is an announcement of eternal bliss.

In selecting his officers, His Majesty is assisted by his knowledge of the spirit of the age, a knowledge which sheds a peculiar light on the jewel of his wisdom. His Majesty sees through some men at the first glance,¹ and confers upon them high rank. Sometimes he increases the mançab of a servant, but decreases his contingent. He also fixes the number of the beasts of burden. The monthly grants made to the Mançabdárs vary according to the condition of their contingents. An officer whose contingent comes up to his mançab, is put into the first class of his rank; if his contingent is one half and upwards of the fixed number, he is put into the second class; the third class contains those contingents which are still less, as is shewn in the table below.

Yúzbáshís (Commanders of One Hundred) are of eleven classes. The first class contains such as furnish one hundred troopers. Their monthly salary is 700 Rupees. The eleventh class contains such as have no troops of their own in accordance with the statement made above, that Dákhilí troops are now-a-days preferred. This class gets 500 Rupees. The nine intermediate classes have monthly allowances decreasing from 700 Rupees by 20 Rupees for every ten troopers which they furnish less.

In the live stock accounts of the Dúbístís, the fixed number of Turkí and Janglah horses, and of elephants, is not enforced. For Commanders of Thirty and Twenty, four horses are reckoned, generally Mujannas, rarely Yábús; and Dahbáshís are excused the Turkí horse, though their salaries remain as before.

The sixty-six Mançabs, detailed by Abulfazl in the following table appear to be the result of a minute classification rather than a representation of the Mançabs which actually existed at the time of Akbar. The table may represent Akbar's plan; but the list of grandees, as given by Abulfazl himself in the 30th A´ín of this Book, only mentions thirty-three —the three commands of the three Princes from 10000 to 7000; and thirty commands of the Mançabdárs, namely commands of 5000, 4500, 4000, 3500, 3000, 2500, 2000, 1500, 1250, 1000, 900?, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 350, 300?, 250, 200, 150, 120, 100, 80, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10. Of the last thirty commands, two are somewhat doubtful (the commands of 900 and 300), as not given in all MSS. of the A´ín, though the List of Grandees of Sháh Jahán's time (Pádisháhnámah, II. p. 717) mentions a command of 900. It does not specify a command of 300, because no Mançabs under 500 are enumerated in that list.

Abulfazl specifies below the names of all of Akbar's Commanders up to the Mançabdárs of 500; he then gives the names of the Commanders of 500 to 200, who were living, when he made the list. Of the Commands below 200, he merely gives the numbers of those that were alive, viz.,

in all, 1388 Commanders from 150 to 10. The number of the higher Mançabdars from 5000 to 200 is 412, of which about 150 may have been dead, when Abulfazl made his list.

As Abulfazl's List (A´ín 30), according to the testimony of Nizám i Harawí is a complete list,¹ it is certain that of the 66 Mançabs of the following table, only 33 existed in reality. The first eighteen of these 33 are commands down to 500, which corresponds to the List of Sháhjahán's grandees in the Pádisháhnámah, which likewise gives 18 commands to 500.

The commands as detailed in the Pádisháhnámah are:—Four commands of the princes (Dárá Shikoh, 20,000; Sháh Shujá, 15,000; Aurangzeb, 15,000; Murad Bakhsh, 12,000) and commands of 9000, 7000, 6000, 5000, 4000, 3000, 2500, 2000, 1500, 1000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500.

From the fact that Abulfazl only gives names up to commanders of 200, and the Pádisháhnámah up to 500, we may conclude that, at Akbar's time, Mançabs under 200, and at Sháhjahán's time, Mançabs under 500, did not entitle the holder to the title of Amír. To judge from Nizám's Tabaqát and the Maásir i Rahímí, Mançabdárs from the Hazárí (Commander of 1000) were, at Akbar's time, styled umará-i-kibár, or umará-i-'izám, great Amírs; and I am not quite sure whether the title of Amír is not restricted to Mançabdárs from the Hazárís upwards. Nizám does restrict his phrases ba martabah i imárat rasíd, or dar jargah (or silk, or zumrah) i umará muntazim gasht, to commanders from Hazárís.

The title Amír ul Umará (the Amír of the Amírs, principal Amír), which from its meaning would seem to be applicable to one at the time, seems to have been held by several simultaneously. Nizám gives this title to Adham Khán, Khizr Khwájah Khán, Mír Muhammad Khán Atkah, Muzaffar Khán, Quṭbuddín Muhammad Khán, and to the three commanders-in-chief, Bairám Khán, Mun'im Khán, and Mírzá 'Abdurrahím, the three latter being styled Khán Khánán,¹ or Khán Khánán o Sipahsálár.

In the Pádisháhnamáh, however, the title of Amírul Umará is restricted to the first living grandee ('Alí Mardán Khán).

It is noticeable that Nizám only mentions commanders of 5000, 4000, 3000, 2500, 2000, 1500, and 1000—for lower Mançabs he does not specify names. Abulfazl gives three intermediate Mançabs of 4500, 3500, and 1250; but as he only gives five names for these three ranks, we may conclude that these Mançabs were unusual. This agrees also with the salaries of the commanders; for if we leave out the commands of 4500, 3500, and 1250, we have, according to A´ín 30, twelve steps from 5000 to 500, and the monthly salary of a commander of 500 (Rs. 2500) is the twelfth part of the salary of a commander of 5000 (Rs. 30,000). The Pádisháhnámah gives fourteen steps between the commanders of 7000 and 500, and fixes the salary of a Commander of 7000 at one kror of dáms per annum, or 250000 Rs., stating at the same time that the salaries decrease in proportion. The Persian Dictionary, entitled Ghiás ullughát, states that the salary of a commander of 5000 is 1 kror, or 250,000 Rs., and that the salary of a Pançadí, or commander of 500, is 20,000 Rs. per annum, the 12½th part of the former.

It would thus appear that the salaries of the Mançabdárs, as given by Abulfazl in the following table, are somewhat higher than those given in the Pádisháhnámah and the Ghiás, whatever may have been the source of the latter.

The salaries appear to be unusually high; but they would be considerably reduced, if each Mançabdár had to keep up the establishment of horses, elephants, camels, carts, &c., which Abulfazl specifies for each rank. Taking the preceding A´ín and the table in the note as a guide, the establishment of horses, &c., mentioned in the following table, would amount

The three classes which Abulfazl mentions for each Mançab differ very slightly, and cannot refer to p. 238, l. 7.

A commander of 5000 was not necessarily at the head of a contingent of 5000 men. In fact, the numbers rarely even approach the number expressed by the title of a Mançabdár. Thus Nizám says of Todar Mall and Quṭbuddín Muhammad Khán, as if it was something worth mentioning, that the former had 4000 cavalry, and the latter 5000 naukars, or servants, i. e., soldiers, though Todar Mall was a commander of 4000 (Nizám says 5000), and Quṭbuddín a commander of 5000. Of 'Abdul Majíd A´çaf Khán, a commander of 3000 (vide A´ín 30, No. 49), Nizám says, ‘he reached a point when he had 20,000.’ In the Pádisháhnámah, where more details are given regarding the number of men under each commander, we find that of the 115 Commanders of 500 under Sháhjahán only six had contingents of 500, whilst the last had only 50 troopers. This also explains the use of the word zát after the titles of Mançabdárs; as panj házárí i zát sihhazár suwár, “a Commander of 5000, personally (zát, or by rank), and in actual command of 3000 cavalry.” Sometimes we meet with another phrase, the meaning of which will be explained below, as Sháistah Khán panjhazárí, panj hazár suwár i duaspah sihaspah, “Sháistah Khán, a Commander of 5000, contingent 5000 cavalry, with two horses, with three horses.” A trooper is called duaspah, if he has two horses, and sihaspah, if three, in order to change horses during elghárs or forced marches. But keeping duaspah sihaspah troopers was a distinction, as in the Pádisháhnámah only the senior Mançabdárs of some ranks are so designated, viz., 8 (out of 20) Panjhazárís; 1 Chahárhazárí; 2 Sihhazárí; 2 Duhazárí; 2 Hazár o pançadí; 1 Hazárí; and 1 Haftçadí.

The higher Mançabdárs were mostly governors of Çúbahs. The governors were at first called sipahsálárs; towards the end of Akbar's reign we find them called Hákims, and afterwards, Çáhib Çúbah or Çúbahdárs, and still later merely Çúbahs. The other Mançabdárs held Jágírs, which after the times of Akbar were frequently changed. The Mançabdárs are also called ta'ínátiyán (appointed), whilst the troops of their contingents are called tábínát (followers);¹ hence tábínbáshí, the Mançabdár himself, or his Bakhshí (pay-master, colonel).

The contingents of the Mançabdárs, which formed the greater part of the army, were mustered at stated times, and paid from the general, or the local treasuries; vide A´íns 6, 7, 8. Akbar had much trouble with these musters, as fraudulent practices were quite common. The reform of the army dates from the time when Shahbáz Khán (vide pp. 140, 188) was appointed Mír Bakhshí. The following passage from Badáoní (II, p. 190) is interesting:

“The whole country, with the exception of the Kháliçah lands (domains), was held by the Amírs as jágír; and as they were wicked and rebellious, and spent large sums on their stores and workshops, and amassed wealth, they had no leisure to look after the troops or take an interest in the people. In cases of emergency, they came themselves with some of their slaves and Moghul attendants to the scene of the war; but really useful soldiers there were none. Shahbáz Khán,² the Mír Bakhshí, introduced the custom and rule of the dágh o mahallí, which had been the rule of A'láuddín Khiljí,³ and afterwards the law under Sher Sháh. It was settled that every Amír should commence as a commander of twenty (bístí), and be ready with his followers to mount guard and….,⁴ as had been ordered; and when, according to the rule, he had brought the horses of his twenty troopers to be branded, he was then to be made a Çadí, or Commander of 100 or more. They were likewise to keep elephants, horses, and camels, in proportion to their Mançabs, according to the same rule. When they had brought to the musters their new contingent complete, they were to be promoted according to their merits and circumstances to the post of Hazárí, Duhazárí, and even Panjhazárí, which is the highest Mançab; but if they did not do well at the musters, they were to be put down. But notwithstanding this new regulation, the condition of the soldiers got worse, because the Amírs did what they liked; for they put most of their own servants and mounted attendants into soldiers' clothes (libás i sipáhí), brought them to the musters, and performed everything according to their duties. But when they got their jágírs, they gave leave to their mounted attendants, and when a new emergency arose, they mustered as many ‘borrowed’ soldiers as were required, and sent them again away, when they had served their purpose. Hence while the income and expenditure of the Mançabdár remained in statu quo, ‘dust fell into the platter of the helpless soldier,’ so much so, that he was no longer fit for anything. But from all sides there came a lot of low tradespeople, weavers, and cotton-cleaners (naddáf), carpenters, and greengrocers, Hindu and Musalmán, and brought borrowed horses, got them branded, and were appointed to a Mançab, or were made Krorís (vide p. 13, l. 5 from below), or Ahadís, or Dákhilís to some one (vide p. 231); and when a few days afterwards no trace was to be found of the imaginary horse and the visionary saddle, they had to perform their duties on foot. Many times it happened at the musters, before the emperor himself in the Díwán-khánah i kháç, that they were weighed in their clothes, with their hands and feet tied, when they were found to weigh from 2½ to 3 man, more or less (?) and after inquiry, it was found that all were hired, and that their very clothes and saddles were borrowed articles. His Majesty then used to say, “With my eyes thus open, I must give these men pay, that they may have something to live on.” After some time had passed away, His Majesty divided the Ahadís into duaspah, yakaspah (having one horse), and nímaspah (having half a share in a horse), in which latter case two troopers kept one horse together, and shared the stipulated salary, which amounted to six rupees.¹

These were things of daily occurrence,……..;² but notwithstanding all this, His Majesty's good luck overcame all enemies, so that large numbers of soldiers were not so very necessary, and the Amírs had no longer to suffer from the inconvenient reluctance of their servants.”

Hence the repeated musters which Akbar held, both of men, and of animals, carts, &c. the minuteness of some of the regulations recorded in the Aín; and the heavy fines imposed on neglectful servants (p. 217, note). The carefulness with which Akbar entered into details (kasrat), in order to understand the whole (wahdat)—an unusual thing for rulers of former times—is the secret of his success.³

We have not sufficient data to form an exact estimate of the strength of Akbar's army. We may, however, quote a statement in the Pádisháhnámah regarding the strength of Sháhjahán's army; vide Pádisháhn. II, p. 715.

“The paid army of the present reign consists of 200,000 cavalry, according to the rule of branding the fourth part, as has been mentioned above. This is exclusive of the soldiers that are allowed to the Faujdárs, Krorís, and tax-collectors, for the administration of the Parganahs. These 200,000 cavalry are made up as follows—

“Besides these 200,000 cavalry, there are 40,000 foot, musketeers, artillery, and rocket-bearers. Of these 40,000, 10,000 accompany the emperor, and the remaining 30,000¹ are in the Çúbahs and the forts.”

The ‘Rule of branding the fourth part’ is described among the events of the year 1056, as follows (II, p. 506):—

“The following law was made during the present reign (Sháhjahán). If a Mançabdár holds a jágír in the same çúbah, in which he holds his mançab, he has to muster one-third of the force indicated by his rank.² Accordingly a Sih Hazárí i zát sihhazár suwár (a Commander of 3000, personal rank; contingent, 3000 cavalry) has to muster (bring to the brand) 1000 cavalry. But if he holds an appointment in another çúbah, he has only to muster a fourth part. Accordingly, a Chahárhazárí chahárhazár suwár (a Commander of 4000; contingent, 4000) has only to muster 1000 cavalry.

At the time when the Imperial army was ordered to take Balkh and Samarqand [1055], His Majesty, on account of the distance of those countries, gave the order that as long as the expedition should last, each Mançabdár should only muster one-fifth. Accordingly a Panjhazárí panjhazár suwár (a commander of 5000; contingent, 5000) mustered only 1000, viz., 300 Sihaspah troopers, 600 Duaspah troopers, 100 yakaspah troopers [i. e., 1000 men with 2200 horses], provided the income (háçil) of his jágír was fixed at 12 months; or 250 Sihaspah troopers, 500 duaspah troopers, and 250 yakaspah troopers [i. e., 1000 men with 2000 horses], provided the income of his jágír was fixed at 11 months; or 800 duaspah troopers, and 200 yakaspah troopers [i. e., 1000 men and 1800 horses], if the income of his jágír was fixed at 10 months; or 600 duaspah troopers and 400 yakaspah, if at 9 months; or 450 duaspah and 550 yakaspah troopers, if at 8 months; or 250 duaspah and 750 yakaspah troopers, if at 7 months; or 100 duaspah and 900 yakaspah troopers, if at 6 months; or 1000 yakaspah, if at 5 months.

But if the troopers to a mançab had all been fixed as sihaspah duaspah [in other words, if the Commander was not a Panj hazárí, panj hazár suwár, but a Panj hazárí panj hazár suwár i duaspah siaspah] he musters, as his proportion of duaspah and sihaspah troopers, double the number which he would have to muster, if his mançab had been as in the preceding. Accordingly, a Panj hazárí panj hazár tamám duaspah sihaspah (a Commander of 5000; contingent, only duaspah and sihaspah), would muster 600 troopers with three horses, 1200 troopers with two horses, and 200 troopers with one horse each [i. e., 2000 men with 4400 horses], provided the income of his jágír be fixed at 12 months, and so on.”

From this important passage, it is clear that one-fourth of that number of troopers, which is indicated by the title of a Mançabdár, was the average strength of the contingents at the time of Sháhjahán. Thus if a Commander of 1000 troopers had the title of Hazárí hazár suwár, the strength of his contingent was 1000/4 = 250 men with 650 horses, viz. 75 sihaspah, 150 duaspah, and 25 yakaspah; and if his title was Hazárí hazár suwár i duaspah siaspah, the strength of his contingent was 500 men with 1300 horses, viz. 150 sihaspah, 300 duaspah, and 50 yakaspah, if the income of his jágír was drawn by him for every month of the year. The above passage also indicates that the proportions of sihaspah, and duaspah, and yakaspah troopers was for all mançabs as 300 : 600 : 100, or as 3 : 6 : 1.

As the author of the Padisháhnamáh does not mention the restriction as to the number of months for which the Mançabdárs drew the income, we may assume that the difference in strength of the contingents mentioned after the name of each grandee depended on the value of their jágírs.

From an incidental remark (Pádisháhnámah, I. p. 113), we see that the pay of a Commander of sihashpah duaspah troopers was double the pay allowed to a Commander of yakaspahs. This agrees with the fact that the former had double the number of men and horses of the latter.

The strength also of Aurangzeb's army, on a statement by Bernier, was conjectured to have been 200,000 cavalry, vide Elphinstone's History, Second Edition, p. 546, last line.

Akbar's army must have been smaller. It is impossible to compute the strength of the contingents, which was continually fluctuating, and depended rather on emergencies. We can, however, guess at the strength of Akbar's standing army. At the end of A´ín 30, Abulfazl states that there were alive at the time he wrote the A´ín

As these numbers are very uniform, the regular army could not have been larger than 250 × 100, or 25,000 men (troopers, musketeers, and artillery). The Imperial stables contained 12,000 horses (vide p. 132, l. 6 from below), which were under the immediate charge of Mírzá Abdurrahím Khán Khánán, Akbar's Commander-in-Chief. Hence there may have been about 12,000 standing cavalry. The rest were matchlock-bearers and artillery. In A´ín 6, Abulfazl states that there were 12,000 matchlock-bearers. The number of Ahadís, of which Sháhjahán had 7000, cannot have been very large. Many of them were on staff employ in the various offices, store-houses, Imperial workshops; others were employed as adjutants and carriers of important orders. They were, at Akbar's time, gentlemen rather than common soldiers, as they had to buy their own horse on joining. Badáoní mentions an Ahadí of the name of Khwájah Ibráhím Husain as one of his friends (II, p. 394). The number of Mançabdárs, which under Sháhjahán amounted to 8000, was also much less. Of the 415 Mançabdárs, whose names are given in A´ín 30, about 150 were dead, when Abulfazl wrote it,¹ so that there would be about 250 higher Mançabdárs, to which we have to add 1388 lower Mançabdárs, from the Commanders of 150 downwards; hence altogether about 1600 Mançabdárs.

But Akbar's Mançabdárs, on the whole, had larger contingents, especially more horses, than the Mançabdárs of the following reigns, during which the brevet ranks (zát) were multiplied.

In the beginning of Akbar's reign, Mançabdárs had even to furnish men with four horses (chaháraspah). A Dahbáshí, or Commander of Ten, had to furnish 10 men with 25 horses; but in later times (vide A´ín 5) the Chaháraspahs were discontinued, and a Dahbáshí furnished 10 men with 18 horses. As the other ranks had to furnish horses in proportion, one of Akbar's Hazárís would have had to bring 1800 horses, whilst a Hazárí at the time of Shahjahán only furnished 650.

Of Non-Commissioned officers a Mírdahah is mentioned; vide note 1, p. 116. The pay of a Mírdahah of matchlock-bearers varied from 7½ to 6½ R. per mensem. Common matchlock-bearers received from 6¼ to 2¾ R. As they were standing (household) troops, Abulfazl has put them into the first Book of this work (A´íns 36 to 40); and generally, the reader will have to bear in mind that the second book, relating to the army, treats chiefly of the contingents of the Mançabdárs.

Badáoní, in the above extract, p. 243, speaks of a libás i sipáhí, or soldier's uniform (armour?).

The distinctions conferred by the emperor on the Mançabdárs consisted in certain flags (vide p. 50, l. 6, from below), and the gharyál or gong (vide in the beginning of the Fourth Book, A´ín i Gharyál).

There are many brave and worthy persons whom His Majesty does not appoint to a Mança?? but whom he frees from being under the orders of any one. Such persons oelong to the immediate servants of His Majesty, and are dignified by their independence. They go through the school of learning their duties, and have their knowledge tested. As it is the aim of His Majesty to confer a spiritual meaning on that which is external, he calls such persons Ahadís (from ahad, one). They are thus reminded of the unity of God.

A new regulation regarding rank was given.

For the sake of the convenience of the Ahadís, a separate Díwán and a paymaster were appointed, and one of the great Amírs is their chief. A fit person has also been selected to introduce to His Majesty such as are candidates for Ahadíships. Without partiality or accepting bribes, he takes daily several before His Majesty, who examines them. When they have been approved of, they pass through the Yáddásht, the Ta'líqah, the descriptive roll, and accounts [vide A´ín 10]. The paymaster then takes security, and introduces the candidate a second time to His Majesty, who generally increases his pay from an eighth to three-fourths, or even to more than six-sevenths.¹ Many Ahadís have indeed more than 500 Rupees per mensem.² He then gets the number nine as his brand [vide A´ín 7]. In the beginning, when their rank was first established, some Ahadís mustered eight horses; but now, the limit is five. On his sarkhaṭ [vide A´ín 11] each receives a farmánchah (rank and pay certificate), on which year after year the treasurer makes payments.

Ahadís are mustered every four months, when on a certificate signed by the Díwán and the Bakhshí, which is called now-a-days Taçhíhah,³ the clerk of the treasury writes out a receipt, to be countersigned by the principal grandees. This the treasurer keeps, and pays the claim. Before the period (of four months) is over, he gets one month's salary in advance. In the course of the year, he receives cash for ten months, after deducting from it one-twentieth of the sum, the total stoppage being made on account of his horses and other expenses. On joining the service, an Ahadí generally finds his own horse; but afterwards he gets it from the Government; and if the certificate of the inspectors, which is called Saqaṭnámah,⁴ explains the reason why the horse is not forthcoming, he is held indemnified for his dead horse, but does not receive the money for keeping a horse until he gets a new one. But if he has no Saqaṭnámah to shew, he is not allowed anything from the time of the last muster. Those who are in want of horses, are continually taken before His Majesty, who gives away many horses as presents or as part of the pay, one-half being reckoned as irmás money,⁵ and the other half being deducted in four instalments at the subsequent four musters; or if the Ahadí be in debt, in eight instalments.

As I have said something about the Mançabdárs and the Ahadís, I shall give a few details regarding the third class of troopers.

The horse-dealer fixes the quality of the horses, which are carefully inspected by the Bakhshís. The description of the man is then taken down in writing. If a trooper has more than one horse, they add to his establishment a camel or an ox, for which he gets half the allowance usually given to troopers of a superior class; or if this be not given, he gets an addition of two-fifths.

A Yakaspah trooper is paid according to the following rates. If his horse be an 'Iráqí, he gets 30 R. per mensem; if mujannas, 25 R.; if Turkí, 20 R.; if a Yábú, 18 R.; if a Tází, 15 R.; if a Janglah, 12 R.

The Revenue collectors of domain lands got formerly 25 R., but now only 15 R.

Troopers of this kind mustered formerly up to four horses, but now the order is not to exceed three.

Every Dahbáshí had to muster 2 chaháraspah, 3 sihaspah, 3 duaspah, and 2 yakaspah troopers [i. e., 10 troopers with 25 horses], and the other Mançabdárs in the same proportion. But now a Dahbáshí's contingent consists of 3 siháspah, 4 duaspah, and 3 yakaspah troopers [i. e., 10 troopers with 18 horses].

As I have said something about the Cavalry, I shall make a few remarks on foot soldiers. They are of various kinds, and perform remarkable duties. His Majesty has made suitable regulations for their several ranks, and guides great and small in the most satisfactory manner.

The writer of these….¹ is the Awárahnawís. Inasmuch as they are of importance, they are counted as belonging to the infantry. There are several classes of them. The first class gets 500 dáms; the second 400 d.; the third, 300 d.; the fourth, 240 d.

There are 12,000 Imperial Matchlock-bearers. Attached to this service is an experienced Bitikchí, an honest treasurer, and an active Dárogah. A few Bandúqchís are selected for these offices; the others hold the following ranks. Some are distinguished by their experience and zeal, and are therefore appointed over a certain number of others, so that uniformity may pervade the whole, and the duties be performed with propriety and understanding. The pay of these [non-commissioned] officers is of four grades, first, 300 d.; second, 280 d.; third, 270 d.; fourth, 260 d.

Common Bandúqchís are divided into five classes, and each class into three subdivisions. First class, 250, 240, and 230 d. Second class, 220, 210, 200 d. Third class, 190, 180, and 170 d. Fourth class, 160, 150, and 140 d. Fifth class, 130, 120, and 110 d.

A thousand of these active men are employed to guard the palace. The pay of the Mírdahahs is fivefold, 200, 160, 140, 130, and 120 d. Common Darbáns have from 100 to 120 d.

The Khidmatiyyahs also belong to the infantry. They guard the environs of the palace, and see that certain orders are carried out. Panjáhís to Bístís have 200 d.; and a Dahbáshí gets 180 and 140 d. The others get 120, 110, and 100 d.

The caste to which they belong was notorious for highway robbery and theft; former rulers were not able to keep them in check. The effective orders of His Majesty have led them to honesty: they are now famous for their trustworthiness. They were formerly called Máwís. Their chief has received the title of Khidmat Rái. Being near the person of His Majesty, he lives in affluence. His men are called Khidmatiyyahs.¹

They are natives of Mewáṭ, and are famous as runners. They bring from great distances with zeal anything that may be required. They are excellent spies, and will perform the most intricate duties. There are likewise one thousand of them, ready to carry out orders. Their wages are the same as the preceding.

There are several kinds of them, each performing astonishing feats. In fighting they shew much swiftness and agility, and join courage to skill in stooping down and rising up again. Some of them use shields in fighting, others use cudgels. The latter are called Lakráit. Others again use no means of defence, and fight with one hand only; these are called yak-hát'h. The former class come chiefly from the Eastern districts, and use a somewhat smaller shield, which they call chirwah. Those who come from the southern districts, make their shields large enough to conceal a horseman. This kind of shield they call tilwah.

Another class goes by the name of P'haráits. They use a shield not quite so large as to conceal a man, but a gaz broad.

Some again are called Banáits. They use a long sword, the handle of which is more than a gaz long, and seizing it with both hands, they perform extraordinary feats of skill.

The class which goes by the name of Bankúlís are likewise famous. They use a peculiar sword which, though bent towards the point, is straight near the handle. But they do not make use of a shield. The skill which they exhibit passes all description. Others make various kinds of daggers and knives, and perform with them the most extraordinary feats. Each class of these men has a different name; they also differ in their performances. But it is really impossible to give a mere description of them; nor would mere listening to my descriptions be sufficient.

There are more than a hundred thousand of them. At Court one thousand of them are always in readiness. Their Çadí (commander of one hundred) holds the rank of an Ahadí, and even a higher one. Their salaries vary from 80 to 600 d.

There are many Persian and Túrání wrestlers and boxers at Court, as also stone-throwers, athletes of Hindústán, clever Mals from Gujrát, and many other kinds of fighting men. Their pay varies from 70 to 450 d. Every day two well-matched men fight with each other. Many presents are made to them on such occasions. The following belong to the best wrestlers of the age—Mírzá Khán of Gílán; Muhammad Qulí of Tabríz, to whom His Majesty has given the name of Sher hamlah, or Lion-attacker; Çádiq of Bukhárá; 'Alí of Tabríz; Murád of Turkistán; Muhammad 'Alí of Túrán; Fúlád of Tabríz; Qásim of Tabríz; Mírzá Kuhnahsuwár of Tabríz; Sháh Qulí of Kurdistán; Hilál of Abyssinia; Sadhú Dayál; 'Alí; Srí Rám; Kanhyá; Mangol; Ganesh; A´nbá; Nánká; Balbhadr; Bajrnát'h.

His Majesty, from religious motives, dislikes the name bandah, or slave; for he believes that mastership belongs to no one but God. He therefore calls this class of men Chelahs, which Hindí term signifies a faithful disciple.¹ Through His Majesty's kindness, many of them have chosen the road to happiness.²

Various meanings attach to the term slave. First, that which people in general mean by a slave. Some men obtain power over such as do not belong to their sect, and sell and buy them. The wise look upon this as abominable. Secondly, he is called a slave, who leaves the path of selfishness, and chooses the road of spiritual obedience.¹ Thirdly, one's child. Fourthly, one who kills a man, in order to inherit his property. Fifthly, a robber who repents and attaches himself to the man whom he had robbed. Sixthly, a murderer whose guilt has been atoned by payment of money, in which case the murderer becomes the slave of the man who releases him. Seventhly, he who cheerfully and freely prefers to live as a slave.

The pay of Chelahs varies from 1 R. to 1 d. per diem. His Majesty has divided them into several sections, and has handed them over to active and experienced people, who give them instruction in several things. Thus they acquire knowledge, elevate their position, and learn to perform their duties with propriety.

His Majesty who encourages everything which is excellent, and knows the value of talent, honors people of various classes with appointments in the ranks of the army; and raises them from the position of a common soldier to the dignity of a grandee.

They form a class of foot-servants peculiar to India. They carry heavy loads on their shoulders, and travel through mountains and valleys. With their pálkís, singhásans, chauḍols, and dúlís, they walk so evenly, that the man inside is not inconvenienced by any jolting. There are many in this country; but the best came from the Dak'hin and Bengal. At Court, several thousands of them are kept. The pay of a head bearer varies from 192 to 384 d. Common bearers get from 120 to 160 d.

A fixed number of these troops are handed over to the Mançabdárs; but they are paid by the State. His Majesty has ordered to designate these infantry soldiers in the descriptive rolls as nímah suwárán, or half troopers.

The fourth part of Dákhilí troops are matchlock-bearers; the others carry bows.

Carpenters, workers in iron, water-carriers, pioneers, belong to this class.

A non-commissioned officer of the matchlock-bearers receives 160 d., or 4 R.; common matchlock-bearers get 140 d. The Mírdahahs of the archers get from 120 to 180 d.; common archers from 100 to 120 d.

I could say much more on this subject, but I must content myself with having described the principal classes. I have also given some details in speaking of the several workshops and offices of the Household.

When His Majesty had fixed the ranks of the army, and enquired into the quality of the horses, he ordered that upright Bitikchís should make out descriptive rolls of the soldiers and write down their peculiar marks. Their ages, the names of their fathers, dwelling-places, and race, were to be registered. A Dárogah also was appointed, whose duty it is to see that the men are not unnecessarily detained. They were to perform their duties without taking bribes or asking for remunerations.

Every one who wishes to join the army, is taken before His Majesty, in whose presence his rank is fixed, after which the clerks make out the Ta'líqah [vide A´ín 10].

Dákhilí troops are admitted on the signature of the Mançabdárs.

His Majesty has also appointed five experienced officers who have to look after the condition of the men, their horses, and the stipulated amount of pay. His Majesty has the men assembled in an open place, and receives the several descriptive rolls, when the men with their horses are handed over to the above five officers. The amount of their pay is then entered at the bottom of the descriptive rolls, and is countersigned by those officers, which serves as a proof, and prevents fraudulent alterations. Each roll is then handed over to the inspecting Dárogah. He takes them in the manner described above [vide A´ín 4.] to His Majesty, who orders the pay to be increased or decreased. His Majesty discerns the value of a man by the lineaments of his forehead, and can therefore increase or decrease his pay. He also distinguishes a tradesman by the look of his face from a soldier, so much so that experienced people are astonished, and refer His Majesty's power of discernment to ‘hidden knowledge.’ When the roll is thus certified, it is also signed by the Wáqi'ah Nawís (A´ín 10), the Mír'Arz, and the officer commanding the guards. On the strength of this certificate, the Dárogah of the dágh (brand) marks the horses.

When the brand was first introduced, it was made in the shape of the head of the letter sín [i. e. like this, ], and was put on the right side of the neck of the horse. For some time, it was made in shape of two alifs intersecting at right angles, the heads of the alif being made heavy, as in this figure , and put on the right thigh. For some time again, it was made like a bow with the string taken off. At last, numerals were introduced, which plan best frustrates fraudulent practices. They make iron numerals, by which all indistinctness is avoided. These new signs are likewise put on the right thigh. Formerly, each horse on being mustered for the first time, was marked with a 1; the second time with a 2, and so on; but now His Majesty has ordered that separate numerals should be used for the horses of the princes, the Mançabdárs, the governors of the provinces, and all other dignitaries attached to the Court.

The carefulness with which the system of marking horses was attended to, resulted at once in truthful reports regarding dead horses; for when a soldier, after the introduction of the system of repeated marks (vide next A´ín), brought a horse which had been exchanged, he would demand his pay from the time he had last received his pay, whilst the Bakhshí commenced to count from the day he brought his (exchanged) horse. But since the present mark was introduced, the rule was made that each horse with which, instead of with his old one, a trooper came to the muster, should be described, and should get the same mark as the dead one; the Bakhshís, at the subsequent musters held for repeating the marks, were to inspect it and go by the brand. Horses answering the description in the rolls were even hired, and substituted for the old ones; but as the mark was not forthcoming, the deception was detected, and the soldiers thus learnt to be honest.

The servants (Mançabdárs) of His Majesty have their horses every year newly marked, and thus maintain the efficiency of the army, as by their endeavours, unprincipled people learn to choose the path of honesty. If a Mançabdár delays bringing his men to the muster, one-tenth of his jágír (aqṭá')¹ is withheld. Formerly when the mark was repeated, they put the number on the muster of the horse, marking, for example, a horse with a 2, when it was mustered the second time, and so on; but now, as each class of soldiers has a particular mark, the mark is merely repeated at the subsequent musters. In the case of Ahadís, the former custom was retained. Some Bitikchís, and near servants of His Majesty who have no leisure to look after jágírs, receive their monthly salaries in cash, and muster their horses every eighteen months. Grandees whose jágírs are very remote, do not bring their horses to muster before twelve years have elapsed; but when six years have elapsed since the last muster, one-tenth of their income is retrenched. And if a Mançabdár has been promoted to a higher Mançab, and three years have elapsed since he last presented his horses at muster, he receives a personal () increase of salary, but draws the allowance for the increased number of his men after the first muster. His old and his new men then get their assignments. If at the renewal of the mark at subsequent musters, any soldier brings a superior horse in exchange for his old one, he is taken before His Majesty, who inspects and accepts it.

Mounting guard is called in Hindí chaukí. There are three kinds of guards. The four divisions of the army have been divided into seven parts, each of which is appointed for one day, under the superintendence of a trustworthy Mançabdár. Another, fully acquainted with all ceremonies at Court, is appointed as Mír 'Arz. All orders of His Majesty are made known through these two officers (the Mír 'Arz and the Commander of the Palace). They are day and night in attendance about the palace, ready for any orders His Majesty may issue. In the evening, the Imperial Qur (vide p. 110) is taken to the State hall. The mounting guards stand on the right; the ranks of the guards to be relieved are drawn up on the other side. His Majesty generally inspects the guards himself, and takes notice of the presence or absence of the soldiers. Both ranks salute His Majesty. If His Majesty be prevented by more important affairs from attending, one of the princes is ordered to inspect the guards. From predilection and a desire to teach soldiers their duties, as also from a regard to general efficiency, His Majesty pays much attention to the guards. If any one is absent without having a proper excuse, or from laziness, he is fined one week's pay, or receives a suitable reprimand.

The Imperial army has been divided into twelve parts, each of which mounts guard for the space of one month. This gives all troops, whether near or far, an opportunity to come to Court, and to partake of the liberality of His Majesty. But those who are stationed at the frontiers, or told off for any important duty, merely send in reports of their exact condition, and continue to perform His Majesty's special orders. On the first of every solar month, the guards are drawn up to salute His Majesty, as is usual on weekly parades, and are then distinguished by royal marks of favour.

The Imperial army has also been divided into twelve other divisions, each of which is selected in turn, to come to Court for one year and do duty near the person of His Majesty.

Keeping records is an excellent thing for a government; it is even necessary for every rank of society. Though a trace of this office may have existed in ancient times, its higher objects were but recognized in the present reign. His Majesty has appointed fourteen zealous, experienced, and impartial clerks, two of whom do daily duty in rotation, so that the turn of each comes after a fortnight.² Some other suitable men are selected as supernumeraries, each of whom is appointed for one day; and if any of the fourteen be detained by an important business, this additional person acts for him. Hence they are called kotal (supernumeraries).

Their duty is to write down the orders and the doings of His Majesty and whatever the heads of the departments report; what His Majesty eats and drinks; when he sleeps, and when he rises; the etiquette in the State hall; the time His Majesty spends in the Harem; when he goes to the general and private assemblies; the nature of hunting-parties; the slaying of animals;³ when he marches, and when he halts; the acts of His Majesty as the spiritual guide of the nation; vows made to him; his remarks (vide Fifth Book); what books he has read out to him; what alms he bestows; what presents he makes; the daily and monthly exercises⁴ which he imposes on himself; appointments to mançabs; contingents of troops; salaries; jágírs; Irmás money (vide above, p. 250, note 5); sayúrgháls (rentfree land); the increase or decrease of taxes; contracts; sales; money transfers; peshkash (tribute receipts); despatch; the issue of orders; the papers which are signed by His Majesty; the arrival of reports; the minutes thereon; the arrivals of courtiers; their departures; the fixing¹ of periods; the inspection of the guards; battles, victories, and peace; obituaries of well-known persons; animal-fights and the bettings on them; the dying of horses; capital punishments; pardons granted by His Majesty; the proceedings of the general assemblies; marriages, births; chaugán games (vide A´ín 29); chaupar, nard, chess, card games, &c. extraordinary phenomena; the harvests of the year; the reports on events.

After the diary has been corrected by one of His Majesty's servants, it is laid before the emperor, and approved by him. The clerk then makes a copy of each report, signs it, and hands it over to those who require it as a voucher, when it is also signed by the Parwánchí, by the Mír 'Arz, and by that person who laid it before His Majesty. The report in this state is called yáddásht, or memorandum.

Besides, there are several copyists who write a good hand and a lucid style. They receive the yáddasht when completed, keep it with themselves, and make a proper abridgment of it. After signing it, they return this instead of the yáddásht, when the abridgment is signed and sealed by the Wáqi'ahnawís, and the Risálahdár,² the Mír 'Arz, and the Dárogah. The abridgment, thus completed, is called Ta'líqah, and the writer is called Ta'líqahnawís.

The Ta'líqah is then signed, as stated above, and sealed by the ministers of State.

His Majesty's object is, that every duty be properly performed; that there be no undue increase, or decrease in any department; that dishonest people be removed, and trustworthy people be held in esteem; and that active servants may work without fear, and negligent and forgetful men be held in check.

Every money matter will be satisfactorily settled, when the parties express their minds clearly, then take a pen, and write down the statement in legible handwriting. Every written statement of accounts is called a sanad. All classes of men adopt such a practice.

The sanad is the voucher which relieves the treasurer of all responsibility, and on which people receive payment of their claims. Honest experienced officers, upon whose forehead the stamp of correctness shines, write the agreement upon loose pages and leaves, so that the transaction cannot be forgotten. These loose sheets into which all sanads are entered, are called the Daftar.¹

His Majesty has made himself acquainted with this department and brought it into proper working order. He has appointed clever, honest, incorruptible, experienced writers, and entrusts the daftar to impartial officers, who are under his immediate control.

The Daftar of the empire is divided into three parts:—

1. The Abwábulmál, or entries referring to the revenue of the country. This part of the Daftar explains the revenue of the empire, details any increase or decrease, and specifies every other source of income (as presents, &c.)

2. The Arbáb uttaháwíl.² This part explains the manner in which the sums for the Household have been expended; it contains the debits and credits entered on account of the cashkeepers employed at Court; and lastly, contains the accounts of daily expenditure, &c., for things bought or sold.

3. The Taujíh.³ This part contains all entries referring to the pay of the army, and shows the manner in which the pay is given out.

Some sanads are merely sealed with the imperial seal. Other sanads are first signed and sealed by the ministers of State, and are afterwards laid before His Majesty for signature. Many sanads, however, are only signed and sealed by the grandees of the Court. This will be explained in the following.

Farmán i sabtís are issued for three purposes:—

1. For appointments to a Mançab; to the Vakílship; to the post of Sipahsálár (governor of a province and Commander-in-Chief); to the tutorship of the princes; to the rank of Amírulumará (vide p. 240); to a Náhiatí, or districtship; to the post of Vazír, or Finance Minister; to the Bakhshíship, (Pay master and Adjutant General); to the post of a Çadr, or a judge.

2. For appointments to jágírs, without military service;¹ for taking charge of a newly conquered territory; sometimes….²

3. For conferring Sayúrgháls (vide A´ín 19); for grants on account of daily subsistence allowance; and for grants for beneficent purposes.

When the Ta'líqah has been made out, the Díwán i Jágír (who keeps the Jágír accounts) pays the stipulated grant. If the jágír is given for military services, with the order of bringing horses to the muster, the grant is once more sent to the Bakhshís for inspection, when the following words are written either on the back or the corner of the paper—kháçah, o mardum baráward numáyand; kárgarán i íṉ shughl chihrahnawísí kunand (this is special; the estimate for the salary may be made out. The proper officers are to prepare the descriptive rolls). When the horses are then branded at the time of the muster, the Bakhshígeneral takes the Ta'líqah, keeps it, and hands instead of it a writing specifying the amount of the monthly salary, duly signed and sealed.

This paper, which the Bakhshí grants instead of the Ta'líqah, is called Sarkhaṭ.

The Sarkhaṭs are entered in the daftars of all Sub-Bakhshís, and are distinguished by particular marks. The Díwán then keeps the Sarkhaṭ with himself, prepares an account of the annual and monthly salary due on it, and reports the matter to His Majesty. If His Majesty gives the order to confer a jágír on the person specified in the Sarkhaṭ, the following words are entered on the top of the report: Ta'líqah i tan qalamí numáyand (they are to write out a Ta'líqah i tan (certificate of salary). This order suffices for the clerks; they keep the order, and make out a draft to that effect. The draft is then inspected by the Díwán, who verifies it by writing on it the words sabt numáyand (ordered to be entered). The mark of the Daftar, and the seal of the Díwán, the Bakhshí, and the Accountant the Díwán, are put on the draft in order, when the Imperial grant is written on the outside. The draft thus completed is sent for signature to the Díwán.

The Çáhib i Taujíh, or Military accountant, keeps the former Ta'líqah with himself, writes its details on the Farmán, and seals and signs it. It is then inspected by the Mustaufí, and is signed and sealed by him. Afterwards the Názir and the Bakhshís do so likewise, when it is sealed by the Díwán, his Accountant, and the Vakíl of the State.

If His Majesty's order specifies a cash payment, the farmán is made out in the same manner, but is generally called Barát (cheque). A statement of accounts of the transaction is appended at the bottom of it. After the Názir, the Díwán i Buyútát signs it, and when it has passed through the hands of the Bakhshís and the Díwán, it is sealed and signed by the Khán Sámán. The receipts and expenditure of the Imperial workshops, the deposits and payments of salaries to the workmen (of whom some draw their pay on [military] descriptive rolls, and others according to the services performed by them, as the men engaged in the Imperial elephant and horse stables, and in the waggon department) are all made by baráts. The accountant of each workshop (or stable) writes out annually two baráts, one for the six months from Farwardín (February–March) to Shahríwar, and the other from Mihr (September) to Isfandiyármuz. He writes down the allowances on account of grain, grass, &c., both in shape of cash and stores, and the salaries of the workmen, and signs the statement. The Díwán i Buyútát inspects them, passes the order for payment, enquires into the increase or decrease, if any, and writes on the margin az tahwíl i falání barát nawísand, ‘Let a barát be made out shewing the amount to be deposited with such and such a Mushrif.’ The Mushrif of the workshop or stable then takes it, writes out an order and the receipt, and seals and signs it. In all cash payments, one-fourth is deducted, as another sanad is given for this amount. The Díwán i Buyútát then gives the order to have it entered. The Mushrif does so, signs and seals the barát and the receipt. It then passes through the hands of the Military Accountant, the Názir, the Díwán i Buyútát, the Díwán i Kul, the Khán Sámán, the Mushrif of the Díwán, and the Vakíl, who sign and seal it. In every case the estimate is sent along with it, so that there may be no mistake. When it has been laid before His Majesty, the Mushrif writes out the receipt, which is then in the same manner entered into the several daftars. The mode of payment also is detailed on the back of it, viz. one-fourth is to be paid in gold (ashrafís); one-half in silver (rúpís) and one part in copper (dáms), according to the fixed values of the coins.

The Farmáns in favor of Mançabdárs are made out in the same manner; they are, however, never sent to the officers of the workshops and stables.

In case of Sayúrghals (vide A´ín 19), the farmáns, after having been signed by the Mustaufí, are entered in the daftars of the Díwán i Sa'ádat (vide A´ín 19); they are then signed and sealed by the Çadr, and the Díwán i Kul.

Farmáns are sometimes written in Ṭughrá character; but the two first lines are not made short. Such a Farmán is called a Parwánchah.

Parwánchahs are made out for the stipulated salaries of the Begums and the princes; for the stipends of people under the care of the Díwán i Sa'ádat (vide A´ín 19); the salaries of the Ahadís, Chelahs, and of some officers in the workshops; and for the allowances on account of the food of Bárgír horses (vide p. 139, A´ín 54). The treasurer does not annually demand a new sanad, but pays the allowances on the mere receipt, signed and sealed by the ministers of the State. The Mushrif (accountant) writes out the receipt, which is signed by the recipient, and is then sent to the Díwán for orders. It is then signed by the Mushrif, the Mustaufí, the Názir i Buyútát, the Díwán i Kul, the Khán-Sámán, the Mushrif of the Díwán. In the Parwánchahs given to Ahadís, the signature, seal, and orders of the Ahadíbáshí, or Commander of the Ahadís, are required after those of the Mustaufí, the Díwán, and the Bakhshís, because His Majesty, from motives of kindness, and from a desire to avoid delay, has ordered that these Parwánchahs need not be laid before him.

Nor does His Majesty sign sarkhaṭs, sale and purchase receipts, price-lists, 'arznámchahs (statements of sums forwarded to Court by the collectors of the Imperial domains) qarár námahs (which specify the revenue collections of the collectors on account of the ryots), and the muqásá (statements of account which Tahwíldárs take from the Mustaufí, showing that the sums which they had received as deposits, have been correctly expended).

Farmáns, Parwánchahs, and Baráts, are made into several folds beginning from the bottom. On the first fold which is less broad, at a place towards the edge where the paper is cut off, the Vakíl puts his seal; opposite to it, but a little lower, the Mushrif of the Díwán puts his seal, in such a manner that half of it goes to the second fold. Then, in like manner but a little lower, comes the seal of the Çadr. But when Shaikh 'Abdunnabí and Sulṭán Khwájah were çadrs (vide note to A´ín 19), they used to put their seals opposite to that of the Vakíl. In the middle of that fold is the place where that person puts his seal who comes nearest in rank to the Vakíl, as Atkah Khán did at the time of Mun'im Khán, and Adham Khán. The Mír Mál, the Khán Sámán, the Parwánchí, &c., seal on the second fold, but in such a manner that a smaller part of their seals goes to the first fold. The seals of the Díwán, and the Bakhshí do not go beyond the edge of the second fold, whilst the Díwán i juz, the Bakhshí i juz, and the Díwán i Buyútát put their seals on the third fold. The Mustaufí puts his seal on the fourth, and the Çáhib i Taujíh on the fifth fold. The seal of His Majesty is put above the Ṭughrá lines on the top of the Farmán, where the princes also put their seals in Ta'líqahs.

Some matters connected with the Government do not admit of delay, or must not to be known to every one. Such an order receives only the Imperial seal, and is called a Farmán i Bayází.¹ The farmán is folded up, and two edges are made to meet, when a knot of paper is put over them, which is sealed up, in such manner, that the contents cannot be seen. The sealing wax is made of the gum of the Kunár, the Baṛ, the Pípal, and other trees. Like wax, it gets warm when exposed to fire, but gets afterwards cool and hard. When thus sealed, the farmán is put into a golden cover; for His Majesty looks upon the use of external signs of grandeur as an act of divine worship. Such farmáns are carried by Mançabdárs, Ahadís, or common foot-soldiers, to the parties concerned.

When an officer receives such an order he proceeds a proper distance to meet it, performs various acts of obeisance, puts it on the crown of his head, makes the sijdah, and rewards the messenger according to the favour conferred upon himself, or according to his circumstances. According to His Majesty's wishes, the bags in which reports are sent, are secured in the same manner as a Farmán i Bayází, so that no alterations are possible. In consequence of this, much trouble is avoided, and dishonest practices are put a stop to.

When any one has the good fortune of joining the army, he receives, on bringing his horses to the muster, a proper sanad without delay and without costs. All accounts of salaries are made out in dáms; but at the time of making out the estimate, he receives one half in rupees, reckoned at thirty-eight dáms² each. Half of the remainder is paid in muhurs at nine rupees each, and the last quarter is given in dáms for stores. When the value of the rupee was raised to forty dáms, the soldiers, through His Majesty's kindness, received dáms at the same rate. Every year one month's pay is subtracted on account of the horse, the value of which is raised fifty per cent. above prime cost, and for accoutrements; but as much care is shewn in buying horses, this increase is not productive of any loss for the soldier. Besides, Ahadís are continually employed for affairs of importance, and are permitted to carry the orders of His Majesty; and whatever is given to them as an acknowledgment for their services by the recipients of the orders, is allowed to be kept by the Ahadís as a present, if they bear a good character; but if not, a part of it is reckoned as monthly pay.

With the view of teaching zeal and removing the stamp of laziness, His Majesty fines soldiers for absence from guard: an Ahadí loses fifteen days' pay, and other soldiers one week's.

The Commander of every contingent (Tábínbáshí) is allowed to keep for himself the twentieth part of the pay of his men, which reimburses him for various expenses.

Higher Officers, who receive lands or monthly salaries may occasionally come into difficulties when it would be against the rules of the government for them to ask for a present. For this reason His Majesty appointed a treasurer and a separate Mír 'Arz, and those who wish to borrow money, may now do so without prejudice to their honour, or annoyance of delay. For the first year, nothing is charged; in the second, the loan is increased by a sixteenth part of it; in the third year, by one-eighth; in the fourth year, by one-fourth; from the fifth to the seventh, by one-half; from the eighth to the tenth year, by three-fourths; from the tenth year and longer, double the original loan is charged, after which there is no further increase.

His Majesty's only object¹ is to teach propriety in transactions; else mutual esteem will never increase among men from the nature of their mercantile affairs.

This regulation brought unprincipled usurers to the proper path, and thus prevented much impropriety.