A'in-i Akbarī - The Ain-i-Akbarī, Volume 1

He is a man of high understanding and noble aspirations who, without the help of others, recognizes a ray of the Divine power in the smallest things of the world; who shapes his inward and outward character accordingly, and shews due respect to himself and to others. He who does not possess these qualifications, ought not to engage in the struggle of the world, but observe a peaceable conduct. If the former be given to retirement, he will cultivate noble virtues; and if his position be a dependent one, he will put his whole heart in the management of his affairs, and lead a life free from distressing cares.

True greatness, in spiritual and in worldly matters, does not shrink from the minutiæ of business, but regards their performance as an act of Divine worship.¹

If he cannot perform every thing himself, he ought to select, guided by insight and practical wisdom, one or two men of sagacity and understanding, of liberal views in religious matters, possessing diligence and a knowledge of the human heart, and be guided by their advice.

The wise esteem him not a king who confines his attention to great matters only, although some impartial judges excuse a king that does so, because avaricious sycophants who endeavour by cunning to obtain the position of the virtuous, often remind him of the difference of ranks, and succeed in lulling asleep such kings as are fond of external greatness, their only object being to make a trade of the revenues of the country, and to promote their own interests. But good princes make no difference between great and small matters; they take, with the assistance of God, the burden of this world and the responsibility of the world to come on the shoulder of resolution, and are yet free and independent, as is the case with the king of our time. In his wisdom, he makes himself acquainted with the successful working of every department, which, although former monarchs have thought it derogatory to their greatness, is yet the first step towards the establishment of a good government. For every branch he has made proper regulations, and he sees in the performance of his duty a means of obtaining God's favour.

The success of this vast undertaking depends upon two things; first, wisdom and insight, to call into existence suitable regulations; secondly, a watchful eye, to see them carried out by men of integrity and diligence.

Although many servants of the household receive their salaries on the list of the army, there was paid for the household in the thirty-ninth year of the Divine era, the sum of 309,186,795 dáms.¹ The expenses on this account, as also the revenues, are daily increasing. There are more than one hundred offices and workshops, each resembling a city, or rather a little kingdom; and by the unremitting attention of his Majesty, they are all conducted with regularity, and are constantly increasing, their improvement being accompanied by additional care and supervision on the part of his Majesty.

Some of the regulations I shall transmit, as a present, to future enquirers, and thus kindle in others the lamp of wisdom and energy.

As regards those regulations which are of a general nature, and which from their subject matter, belong to each of the three divisions of the work, I have put them among the regulations of the Household.

Every man of sense and understanding knows that the best way of worshipping God, consists in allaying the distress of the times, and in improving the condition of man. This depends, however, on the advancement of agriculture, on the order kept in the king's household, on the readiness of the champions of the empire, and the discipline of the army. All this again is connected with the exercise of proper care on the part of the monarch, his love for the people, and with an intelligent management of the revenues and the public expenditure. It is only when cared for, that the inhabitants of the towns, and those of the rural districts, are able to satisfy their wants, and to enjoy prosperity. Hence it is incumbent on just kings, to care for the former, and to protect the latter class of men. If some say that to collect wealth, and to ask for more than is absolutely necessary, is looked upon as contemptible by people given to retirement and seclusion, whilst the opposite is the case with the inhabitants of the towns, who live in a dependent position, I would answer that it is after all only shortsighted men who make this assertion; for in reality both classes of men try to obtain that which they think necessary. Poor, but abstemious people take a sufficient quantity of food and raiment, so as to keep up the strength necessary for the pursuit of their enquiries, and to protect them against the influence of the weather; whilst the other class think to have just sufficient, when they fill their treasuries, gather armies, and reflect on other means of increasing their power.

It was from such views, when lifting the veil and beginning to pay attention to these weighty concerns, that his Majesty entrusted his inmost secrets to the Khájah sarái I'timád Khán,¹ a name which his Majesty had bestowed upon him as a fitting title. On account of the experience of the Khájah, the reflections of his Majesty took a practical turn, widened by degrees, and shone at last forth in excellent regulations. An enquiry regarding the income of the different kinds of land was set on foot, and successfully concluded by the wisdom of upright and experienced men. With a comprehensiveness which knew no difference between friends and strangers, the lands which paid rents into the imperial exchequer were separated from the Jágír lands; and zealous and upright men were put in charge of the revenues, each over one krór of dáms. Incorruptible bitakchís² were selected to assist them, and intelligent treasurers were appointed, one for each. And from kindness and care for the agricultural classes, it was commanded that the collectors should not insist upon the husbandman paying coin of full weight, but to give him a receipt for whatever species of money he might bring. This laudable regulation removed the rust of uncertainty from the minds of the collectors, and relieved the subjects from a variety of oppressions, whilst the income became larger, and the state flourished. The fountain of the revenues having thus been purified, a zealous and honest man was selected for the general treasurership, and a dárógah and a clerk were appointed to assist him. Vigilance was established, and a standard laid down for this department.

Whenever a (provincial) treasurer had collected the sum of two lakhs of dáms, he had to send it to the Treasurer General at the Court, together with a memorandum specifying the quality of the sum.

A separate treasurer was appointed for the péshkash¹ receipts, another for receiving heirless property, another for nazar receipts,² and another for the monies expended in weighing the royal person,³ and for charitable donations. Proper regulations were also made for the disbursements; and honest superintendents, dárógahs and clerks were appointed. The sums required for the annual expenditure, are paid at the General Treasury to each cashkeeper of the disbursements, and correct receipts granted for them. A proper system of accounts having thus been inaugurated, the empire began to flourish. In a short time the treasuries were full, the army was augmented, and refractory rebels led to the path of obedience.

In I´rán and Túrán, where only one treasurer is appointed, the accounts are in a confused state; but here in India, the amount of the revenues is so great, and the business so multifarious that twelve treasuries are necessary for storing the money, nine for the different kinds of cash-payments, and three for precious stones, gold, and inlaid jewellery. The extent of the treasuries is too great to admit of my giving a proper description with other matters before me. From his knowledge of the work, and as a reward for labour, his Majesty very often expresses his satisfaction, or conveys reprimands; hence everything is in a flourishing condition.

Separate treasurers were also appointed for each of the Imperial workshops, the number of which is nearly one hundred. Daily, monthly, quarterly, and yearly accounts are kept of the receipts and disbursements, so that in this branch also the market-place of the world is in a flourishing condition.

Again, by the order of his Majesty, a person of known integrity keeps in the public audience hall some gold and silver for the needy, who have their wants relieved without delay. Moreover a krór of dáms is kept in readiness within the palace, every thousand of which is kept in bags made of a coarse material. Such a bag is called in Hindí sahsah, and many of them put up in a heap, ganj. Besides, his Majesty entrusts to one of the nobility a large sum of money, part of which is carried in a purse.¹ This is the reason, why such disbursements are called in the language of the country kharj i bahlah.

All these benefits flow from the wonderful liberality of his Majesty, and from his unremitting care for the subjects of the empire. Would to God that he might live a thousand years!

If I were to speak about the quantity and quality of the stones, it would take me an age. I shall therefore give a few particulars, “gathering an ear from every sheaf.”

His Majesty appointed for this office an intelligent, trustworthy, clever treasurer, and as his assistants, an experienced clerk, a zealous dárógah, and also skilful jewellers. The foundation therefore of this important department rests upon those four pillars. They classified the jewels, and thus removed the rust of confusion.

Rubies.—1st class rubies, not less than 1000 muhurs in value; 2nd class, from 999 to 500 muhurs; 3rd class, from 499 to 300; 4th class, from 299 to 200; 5th class, from 199 to 100; 6th class, from 99 to 60; 7th class, from 59 to 40; 8th class, from 39 to 30; 9th class, from 29 to 10; 10th class, from 9¾ to 5; 11th class, from 4¾ to 1 muhur; 12th class, from ¾ muhur to ¼ rupee. They made no account of rubies of less value.

Diamonds, emeralds, and the red and blue yáqúts, were classified as follows: 1st class, from 30 muhurs upwards; 2nd class, from 29¾ to 15 muhurs; 3rd class, from 14¾ to 12; 4th class, from 11¾ to 10; 5th class, from 9¾ to 7; 6th class, from 6¾ to 5; 7th class, from 4¾ to 3; 8th class, from 2¾ to 2; 9th class, from 1¾ to 1 muhur; 10th class, from 8¾ rupees to 5 rupees; 11th class, from 4¾ to 2 rupees; 12th class, from 1¾ to ¼ rupee.

The Pearls were divided into 16 classes, and strung by scores. The first string contained twenty pearls, each of a value of 30 muhurs and upwards; 2nd class pearls varied from 29¾ to 15 muhurs; 3rd class, from 14¾ to 12; 4th class, from 11¾ to 10; 5th class, from 9¾ to 7; 6th class, from 6¾ to 5; 7th class, from 4¾ to 3; 8th class, from 2¾ to 2; 9th class, from 1¾ to 1; 10th class, less than a muhur, down to 5 rupees; 11th class, less than 5, to 2 rupees; 12th class, less than 2 rupees, to 1¼ rupees; 13th class, less than 1¼ rupees, to 30 dáms; 14th class, less than 30 dáms, to 20 dáms; 15th class, less than 20 dáms, to 10 dáms; 16th class, less than 10 dáms, to 5 dáms. The pearls are strung upon a number of strings indicating their class, so that those of the 16th class are strung upon 16 strings. At the end of each bundle of strings the imperial seal is affixed, to avoid losses arising from unsorting, whilst a description is attached to each pearl, to prevent disorder.

The following are the charges for boring pearls, independent of the daily and monthly wages of the workmen. For a pearl of the 1st class, ¼ rupee; 2nd class, 1/8; 3rd class, 1/10 rupee; 4th class, 3 dáms; 5th class, 1 súkí; 6th class, 1 dám; 7th class, ¾ dáms; 8th class, ½ dám; 9th class, ¼ dám; 10th class, 1/5; 11th class, 1/6; 12th class, 1/7; 13th class, 1/8; 14th class, 1/9; 15th class, 1/10; 16th class, 1/11 dám, and less.

The value of jewels is so well known that it is useless to say anything about it; but those which are at present in the treasury of His Majesty may be detailed as follows:—

Rubies weighing 11 tánks, 20 surkhs,¹ and diamonds of 5¼ tánks, 4 surkhs, each one lakh of rupees; emeralds weighing 17¾ tánks, 3 surkhs, 52,000 rupees; yáqúts of 4 tánks, 7¾ surkhs, and pearls of 5 tánks, each 50,000 rupees.

As the successful working of the mint increases the treasure, and is the source of despatch for every department, I shall mention a few details.

The inhabitants of the towns and the country perform their transactions by means of money. Every man uses it according to the extent of his necessities; the man whose heart is free from worldly desires sustains by it his life, and the worldly man considers it the final stage of his objects—the wants of all are satisfied by it. The wise man looks upon it as the foundation, from which the fulfilment of his worldly and religious wishes flows. It is absolutely necessary for the continuance of the human race, as men obtain by money their food and clothing. You may indeed gain these two things by undergoing some labour, as sowing, rearing, reaping, cleaning, kneadinǵ, cooking; twisting, spinning, wearing, &c. but these actions cannot well be performed without several helpers; for the strength of a single man is not sufficient, and to do so day after day would be difficult, if not impossible. Again, man requires a dwelling, for keeping his provisions. This he calls his home, whether it be a tent, or a cave. Man's existence, and the continuance of his life, depend on five things—a father, a mother, children, servants, food, the last of which is required by all. Moreover, money is required, as our furniture and utensils break; they last in no case very long. But money does last long, on account of the strength and compactness of its material, and even a little of it may produce much It also enables men to travel. How difficult would it be to carry provisions for several days, let alone for several months or years!

By the help of God's goodness this excellent precious metal (gold) has come to the shore of existence, and filled the store of life without much labour on the part of man. By means of gold, man carries out noble plans, and even performs Divine worship in a proper manner. Gold has many valuable qualities: it possesses softness, a good taste, and smell. Its component parts are nearly equal¹ in weight; and the marks of the four elements are visible in its properties. Its colour reminds us of fire, its purity of air, its softness of water, its heaviness of earth; hence gold possesses many life-giving rays. Nor can any of the four elements injure it; for it does not burn in the fire; it remains unaffected by air; retains for ages its appearance although kept in water; and does not get altered when buried in the ground, whereby gold is distinguished from the other metals. It is for this reason that in old books on philosophy in which man's intellect is termed the greater principle, gold is called the lesser principle,² as the things required for human life depend upon it. Among its epithets I may mention ‘the guardian of justice;’ ‘the universal adjuster;’—and indeed the adjustment of things depends on gold, and the basis of justice rests upon it. To render it service, God has allowed silver and brass to come into use, thus creating additional means for the welfare of man. Hence just kings and energetic rulers have paid much attention to these metals, and erected mints, where their properties may be thoroughly studied. The success of this department lies in the appointment of intelligent, zealous and upright workmen, and the edifice of the world is built upon their attention and carefulness.

1. The Dárógah. He must be a circumspect and intelligent man, of broad principles, who takes the cumbrous burden of his colleagues upon the shoulder of despatch. He must keep every one to his work, and shew zeal and integrity.

2. The Sairafí. The success of this important department depends upon his experience, as he determines the degrees of purity of the coins. On account of the prosperity of the present age, there are now numbers of skilful sarráfs;¹ and by the attention of his Majesty, gold and silver are refined to the highest degree of purity. The highest degree of purity is called in Persia dahdahí, but they do not know above ten degrees of fineness; whilst in India it is called bárahbání, as they have twelve degrees. Formerly the old hun, which is a gold coin current in the Deccan, was thought to be pure, and reckoned at ten degrees; but his Majesty has now fixed it at 8½; and the round, small gold dínár of 'Aláuddín, which was considered to be 12 degrees, now turns out to be 10½.

Those who are experienced in this business have related wonderful stories of the purity of gold at the present time, and referred it to witchcraft and alchemy; for they maintain, that gold ore does not come up to this fineness. But by the attention of his Majesty, it has come up to this degree; hence the astonishment of people acquainted with this branch. It is, however, certain, that gold cannot be made finer, and of a higher degree. Honest describers and truthful travellers have indeed never mentioned this degree; but, when gold is put into fusion, small particles separate from it, and mix with the ashes, which ignorant men look upon as useless dross, whilst the skilful recover the metal from it. Although malleable gold ore be calcined and reduced to ashes, yet by a certain operation, it is brought back to its original state; but a part of it is lost. Through the wisdom of his Majesty, the real circumstances connected with this loss, were brought to light, and the fraudulent practices of the workmen thus put to the test.

An abbreviation for bánwárí. Although in this country clever Sairafis are able from experience to tell the degree of fineness by the colour and the brightness of the metal, the following admirable rule has been introduced, for the satisfaction of others.

To the ends of a few long needles, made of brass or such like metal, small pieces of gold are affixed, having their degree of fineness written on them. When the workmen wish to assay a new piece of gold, they first draw with it a few lines on a touchstone, and some other lines with the needles. By comparing both sets of lines, they discover the degree of fineness of the gold. It is, however, necessary that the lines be drawn in the same manner, and with the same force, so as to avoid deception.

To apply this rule, it is necessary to have gold of various degrees of fineness. This is obtained as follows. They melt together one máshah of pure silver with the same quantity of the best copper; and let it get solid. This mixture they again melt with 6 máshahs of pure gold of 10½ degrees of fineness. Of this composition one máshah¹ is taken, and divided into sixteen parts of half a surkh each. If now 7½ surkhs of pure gold (of 10½ degrees) are mixed with one of the sixteen parts of the composition, the touch of the new mixture will only be 10¼ bán.² Similarly, 7 surkhs pure gold and 2 parts of the composition melted together, will give gold of 10 bán; 6½ s. pure gold and 3 parts composition, 9¾ bán; 6 s. gold and 4 parts composition, 9½ bán; 5½ s. gold and 5 parts composition, 9¼ bán; 5 s. gold and 6 parts composition, 9 bán; 4½ s. gold and 7 parts composition, 8¾ bán; 4 s. gold and 8 parts composition, 8½ bán; 3½ s. gold and 9 parts composition, 8¼ bán; 3 s. gold and 10 parts composition, 8 bán; 2½ s. gold and 11 parts composition, 7¾ bán; 2 s. gold and 12 parts composition, 7½ bán; 1½ s. gold and 13 parts composition, 7¼ bán; 1 s. gold and 14 parts composition, 7 bán; and lastly, ½ s. gold and 15 parts composition, 6¾ bán. Or generally, every additional half surkh (or one part) of the composition diminishes the fineness of the gold by a quarter bán, the touch of the composition itself being 6½ bán.

If it be required to have a degree less than 6½ bán, they mix together ½ surkh of the first mixture which consisted, as I said, of silver and copper, with 7½ surkhs of the second composition (consisting of gold, copper and silver), which, when melted together, gives gold of 6¼ bán; and if 1 surkh of the first mixture be melted together with 7 surkhs of the second composition, the result will be 6 bán; and if they require still baser compositions, they increase the mixtures by half surkhs. But in the Banwárí, they reckon to 6 báns only, rejecting all baser compositions.

All this is performed by a man who understands the tests.

3. The Amín. He must possess impartiality and integrity, so that friends and enemies can be sure of him. Should there be any differences, he assists the dárógah and the other workmen, maintains that which is right, and prevents quarrels.

4. The Mushrif. He writes down the daily expenditure in an upright and practical manner, and keeps a systematic day-book.

5. The Merchant. He buys up gold, silver and copper, by which he gains a profit for himself, assists the department, and benefits the revenues of the State. Trade will flourish, when justice is everywhere to be had, and when rulers are not avaricious.

6. The Treasurer who watches over the profits, and is upright in all his dealings.

The salaries of the first four and the sixth officers differ from each other, the lowest of them holding the rank of an Ahadí.¹

7. The Weighman, who weighs the coins. For weighing 100 jalálí goldmuhurs, he gets 1¾ dáms; for weighing 1000 rupees, 619/25 dáms; and for weighing 1000 copper dáms, 11/25 of a dám; and, after this rate, according to the quantity.

8. The Melter of the ore. He makes small and large trenches in a tablet of clay which he besmears with grease, and pours into them the melted gold and silver, to cast them into ingots. In the case of copper, instead of using grease, it is sufficient to sprinkle ashes. For the above mentioned quantity of gold, he gets 23/5 dáms; for the same quantity of silver, 5 dáms and 13¼ jétals;² for the same quantity of copper, 4 dáms and 21½ jétals.

9. The Platemaker. He makes the adulterated gold into plates of six or seven máshahs each, six fingers in length and breadth; these he carries to the assay master, who measures them in a mould made of copper, and stamps such as are suitable, in order to prevent alterations, and to shew the work done. He receives as wages for the above mentioned quantity of gold, 421/3 dáms.

When the abovementioned plates have been stamped, the owner of the gold, for the weight of every 100 jalálí goldmuhurs, must furnish 4 sérs of saltpetre, and 4 sérs of brickdust of raw bricks. The plates after having been washed in clean water, are stratified with the above mixture (of the saltpetre and brickdust), and put one above the other, the whole being covered with cowdung, which in Hindi is called uplah. It is the dry dung of the Wild Cow. Then they set fire to it, and let it gently burn, till the dung is reduced to ashes, when they leave it to cool; then these ashes being removed from the sides, are preserved. They are called in Persian khák i khaláç, and in Hindí salóní. By a process to be mentioned hereafter, they recover silver from it. The plates, and the ashes below them, are left as they are. This process of setting fire to the dung, and removing the ashes at the sides, is twice repeated. When three fires have been applied, they call the plates sitáí. They are then again washed in clean water, and stratified three times with the above mixture, the ashes of the sides being removed.

This operation must be repeated, till six mixtures and eighteen fires have been applied, when the plates are again washed. Then the assay master breaks one of them; and if there comes out a soft and mild sound, it is a sign of its being sufficiently pure; but if the sound is harsh, the plates must undergo three more fires. Then from each of the plates one máshah is taken away, of which aggregate a plate is made. This is tried on the touchstone; if it is not sufficiently fine, the gold has again to pass through one or two fires. In most cases, however, the desired effect is obtained by three or four fires.

The following method of assaying is also used. They take two tólahs of pure gold, and two tólahs of the gold which passed through the fire, and make twenty plates of each, of equal weight. They then spread the above mixture, apply the fire, wash them, and weigh them with an exact balance. If both kinds are found to be equal in weight, it is a proof of pureness.

10. The Melter of the refined metal. He melts the refined plates of gold, and casts them, as described above, into ingots. His fee for 100 gold muhurs is three dáms.

11. The Zarráb. He cuts off the gold, silver and copper ingots, as exactly as he can, round pieces of the size of coined money. His fees are, for 100 gold muhurs, 21 dáms, 1¼ jétals; for the weight of 1000 rupees 53 dáms, 8¾ jétals, if he cuts rupees; and 28 dáms in addition, if he cuts the same weight of silver into quarter rupees. For 1000 copper dáms his fee is 20 dáms; for the same weight of half and quarter dáms, 25 dáms; and for half quarter dáms, which are called dumrís, 69 dáms.

In I´rán and Túrán they cannot cut these pieces without a proper anvil; but Hindustani workmen cut them without such an instrument, so exactly, that there is not the difference of a single hair, which is remarkable enough.

12. The Engraver. He engraves the dies of the coins on steel, and such like metals. Coins are then stamped with these dies. At this day, Mauláná 'Alí Ahmad of Delhi, who has not his equal in any country, cuts different kinds of letters in steel, in such a manner as equals the copyslips of the most skilful caligraphers. He holds the rank of a yúzbáshí;¹ and two of his men serve in the mint. Both have a monthly salary of 600 dáms.

13. The Sikkachí. He places the round pieces of metal between two dies; and by the strength of the hammerer (putkchí) both sides are stamped. His fees are for 100 goldmuhurs, 12/5 dáms; for 1000 rupees, 5 dáms, 9½ jétals; and for the weight of 1000 rupees of small silver pieces, 1 dám, 3 jétals in addition; for 1000 copper dáms, 3 dáms; for 2000 half dáms, and 4000 quarter dáms, 3 dáms, 18¾ jétals; and for 8000 half-quarter dáms, 10½ dáms. Out of these fees the sikkachí has to give one-sixth to the hammerer, for whom there is no separate allowance.

14. The Sabbák makes the refined silver into round plates. For every 1000 rupees weight, he receives 54 dáms.

The discovery of alloy in silver. Silver may be alloyed with lead, tin and copper. In I´rán and Túrán, they also call the highest degree of fineness of silver dahdahí; in Hindustán, the sairafis use for it the term bíst biswah. According to the quantity of the alloy, it descends in degree; but it is not made less than five, and no one would care for silver baser than ten degrees. Practical men can discover from the colour of the compound, which of the alloys is prevailing, whilst by filing and boring it, the quality of the inside is ascertained. They also try it by beating it when hot, and then throwing it into water, when blackness denotes lead, redness copper, a white greyish colour tin, and whiteness a large proportion of silver.

They dig a hole, and having sprinkled into it a small quantity of wild cow dung, they fill' it with the ashes of Mughílan² wood; then they moisten it, and work it up into the shape of a dish; into this they put the adulterated silver, together with a proportionate quantity of lead. First, they put a fourth part of the lead on the top of the silver, and having surrounded the whole with coals, blow the fire with a pair of bellows, till the metals are melted, which operation is generally repeated four times. The proofs of the metal being pure are, a lightning-like brightness, and its beginning to harden at the sides. As soon as it is hardened in the middle, they sprinkle it with water, when flames resembling in shape the horns of wild goats, issue from it. It then forms itself into a dish, and is perfectly refined. If this dish be melted again, half a surkh in every tólah will burn away, i. e., 6 máshahs and 2 surkhs in 100 tólahs. The ashes of the dish, which are mixed with silver and lead, form a kind of litharge, called in Hindí k'haral, and in Persian kúhnah;¹ the use of which will be hereafter explained. Before this refined silver is given over to the Zarráb, 5 máshahs and 5 surkhs are taken away for the Imperial exchequer out of every hundred tólahs of it; after which the assay master marks the mass with the usual stamp, that it may not be altered or exchanged.

In former times silver also was assayed by the banwárí system; now it is calculated as follows:—if by refining 100 tolahs, of sháhí silver, which is current in 'Iráq and Khurásán, and of the lárí and misqálí, which are current in Túrán, there are lost three tólahs and one surkh; and of the same quantity of the European and Turkish narjíl, and the mahmúdí and muzaffarí of Gujrát and Málwah, 13 tólahs and 6½ máshahs are lost, they become of the imperial standard.

15. The Qurçkúb having heated the refined silver, hammers it till it has lost all smell of the lead. His fee for the weight of 1000 rupees, is 4½ dams.

16. The Cháshnígír examines the refined gold and silver, and fixes its purity as follows:—Having made two tólahs of the refined gold into eight plates, he applies layers of the mixture as above described, and sets fire to it, keeping out, however, all draught; he then washes the plates, and melts them. If they have not lost anything by this process, the gold is pure. The assay-master then tries it upon the touchstone, to satisfy himself and others. For assaying that quantity, he gets 12/5 dáms. In the case of silver, he takes one tólah with a like quantity of lead, which he puts together into a bone crucible, and keeps it on the fire till the lead is all burnt. Having then sprinkled the silver with water, he hammers it till it has lost all smell of the lead; and having melted it in a new crucible, he weighs it; and if it has lost in weight three² birinj (rice grains), it is sufficiently pure; otherwise he melts it again, till it comes to that degree. For assaying that quantity, his fee is 3 dáms, 4½ jétals.

17. The Niáriyah collects the khák i khaláç, and washes it, taking two sérs at the time; whatever gold there may be amongst it, will settle, from its weight, to the bottom. The khák, when thus washed, is called in Hindí kukrah, and still contains some gold, for the recovery of which, directions shall hereafter be given. The abovementioned adulterated sediment is rubbed together with quicksilver, at the rate of six máshahs per sér. The quicksilver from its predilective affinity, draws the gold to itself, and forms an amalgam which is kept over the fire in a retort, till the gold is separated from the quicksilver.

For extracting the gold from this quantity of khák, the Niyáriyah receives 20 dáms, 2 jétals.

They mix with the kukrah an equal quantity of punhar, and form a paste of rasí (aqua fortis), and wild cowdung. They then pound the first composition, and mixing it with the paste, work it up into balls of two sérs weight, which they dry on a cloth.

Punhar is obtained as follows:—

They make a hole in the earth, and fill it with the ashes of Babúl-wood, at the rate of six fingers of ashes for every maund of lead. The lead itself is put at the bottom of the hole, which has been smoothed; then they cover it with charcoals, and melt the lead. After that, having removed the coals, they place over it two plates of clay, fixed by means of thorns, and close up the bellows hole, but not the vent. This they keep covered with bricks, till the ashes have thoroughly soaked up the lead. The bricks they frequently remove, to learn the state of the lead. For the abovementioned quantity of lead, there are 4 máshahs of silver mixed up with the ashes. These ashes they cool in water, when they are called punhar. Out of every man of lead two sérs are burnt; but the mass is increased by four sérs of ashes, so that the weight of the whole mass will be one man and two sérs.

Rasí is a kind of acid, made of ashkhár¹ and saltpetre.

Having thus explained what punhar and rasí are, I return to the description of the process of Kukrah. They make an oven-like vessel, narrow at both ends, and wide in the middle, one and a half yards in height, with a hole at the bottom. Then having filled the vessel with coals within four fingers of the top, they place it over a pit dug in the earth, and blow the fire with two bellows. After that, the aforementioned balls being broken into pieces, they throw them into the fire and melt them, when the gold, silver, copper and lead, fall through the hole in the bottom of the vessel into the pit below. Whatever remains in the vessel, is softened and washed, and the lead separated from it. They likewise collect the ashes, from whence also by a certain process profit may be derived. The metal is then taken out of the pit, and melted according to the punhar system. The lead will mix with the ashes, from which thirty sérs will be recovered, and ten sérs will be burnt. The gold, silver and copper, remain together in a mass, and this they call bugráwatí, or according to some, gubráwatí.

They make a hole, and fill it with the ashes of babúl-wood, half a sér for every 100 tólahs of bugrawátí. These ashes they then make up in form of a dish, and mix them up with the bugráwatí, adding one tólah of copper, and twenty-five tólahs of lead. They now fill the dish with coals, and cover it with bricks. When the whole has melted, they remove the coals and the bricks, and make a fire of babúl-wood, till the lead and copper unite with the ashes, leaving the gold and silver together. These ashes are also called k'karal, and the lead and copper can be recovered from them by a process, which will be hereafter explained.

They melt this composition six times; three times with copper, and three times with sulphur, called in Hind. chhachhiyá. For every tólah of the alloy, they take a máshah of copper, and two máshahs, two surkhs of sulphur. First, they melt it with copper, and then with sulphur. If the alloy be of 100 tólahs weight, the 100 máshahs of copper are employed as follows:—they first melt fifty máshahs with it, and then twice again, twenty-five máshahs. The sulphur is used in similar proportions. After reducing the mixture of gold and silver to small bits, they mix with it fifty máshahs of copper, and melt it in a crucible. They have near at hand a vessel full of cold water, on the surface of which is laid a broomlike bundle of hay. Upon it they pour the melted metal, and prevent it, by stirring it with a stick, from forming into a mass. Then having again melted these bits, after mixing them with the remaining copper in a crucible, they set it to cool in the shade: and for every tólah of this mixture, two máshahs and two surkhs of sulphur are used, i. e., at the rate of one and one half quarter sér (13/8 sér) per 100 tólahs. When it has been three times melted in this manner, there appears on the surface a whitish kind of ashes, which is silver. This is taken off, and kept separate; and its process shall hereafter be explained. When the mixture of gold and silver has thus been subjected to three fires for the copper, and three for the sulphur, the solid part left is the gold. In the language of the Panjáb, this gold is called kail, whilst about Dihlí, it is termed pinjar. If the mixture contained much gold, it generally turns out to be of 6½ bán, but it is often only five, and even four.

In order to refine this gold, one of the following methods must be used: Either they mix fifty tólahs of this with 400 tólahs of purer gold, and refine it by the Salóní process; or else they use the Alóní process. For the latter they make a mixture of two parts of wild cowdung, and one part of saltpetre, Having then cast the aforesaid pinjar into ingots, they make it into plates, none of which ought to be lighter than 1½ tólahs, but a little broader than those which they make in the saloni process. Then having besmeared them with sesame-oil, they strew the above mixture over them, giving them for every strewing two gentle fires. This operation they repeat three or four times; and if they want the metal very pure, they repeat the process till it comes up to nine bán. The ashes are also collected, being a kind of k'haral.

Whatever ashes and dross have been collected, both before and after the process of alôní, they mix with double the quantity of pure lead, put them into a crucible, and keep them for one watch over the fire. When the metal is cold, they refine it as described under the article Sabbák, p. 22. The ashes of it are also k'haral. The salóní process is also performed in other ways well known to those conversant with the business.

18. The Paníwár having melted the k'haral, separates the silver from the copper. His fee for every tólah of silver is 1½ dáms. As a return for the profit he makes, he pays monthly 300 dáms to the díwán. Having reduced the k'haral to small bits, he adds to every man of it 1½ sérs of tangár (borax), and three sérs of pounded natrum, and kneads them together. He then puts this mass, sér by sér, into the vessel above described, and melts it, when lead mixed with silver collects in the pit. This is afterwards refined by the process of the sabbák, and the lead which separates from this, and mixes with the ashes, turns punhar.

19. The Paikár buys the salóní and k'haral from the goldsmiths of the city, and carries them to the mint to be melted, and makes a profit on the gold and silver. For every man of salóní, he gives 17 dáms, and for the same quantity of k'haral 14 dáms, to the exchequer.

20. The Nichóíwálah brings old copper-coins which are mixed with silver, to be melted; and from 100 tólahs of silver, 3½ rupees go to the díwán; and when he wishes to coin the silver, he pays a fixed quantity for it as duty.

21. The Khakshóe. When the owners of the metals get their gold and silver in the various ways which have now been described, the Khakshóe sweeps the mint, takes the sweepings to his own house, washes them, and gains a profit. Some of the sweepers carry on a very flourishing trade. The state receives from this man a monthly gift of 12½ rupees.

And in like manner all the officers of the mint pay a monthly duty to the state, at the rate of three dáms for every 100 dáms.

As through the attention of his Majesty, gold and silver have been brought to the greatest degree of purity, in like manner the form of the coins has also been improved. The coins are now an ornament to the treasury, and much liked by the people. I shall give a few particulars.

1. The S'hansah is a round coin weighing 101 tólahs, 9 máshahs, and 7 surkhs, in value equal to 100 la'l i jalálí-muhurs. On the field of one side is engraved the name of his Majesty, and on the five arches in the border, alsultánu ala'zamu alkháqánu almu'azzamu khallada alláhu mulkahu wa sultánahu zarbu dari-lkhiláfati A´grah,—“The great sultán, the distinguished emperor, may God perpetuate his kingdom and his reign! Struck at the capital A´grah.” On the field of the reverse is the beautiful formula,¹ and the following verse of the Qorán:² —Alláhu yarzaqu man yasháu bighairi hisábin,— “God is bountiful unto whom He pleaseth, without measure;”—and roundabout are the names of the first four califs. This is what was first cut by Mauláná Maqçúd, the engraver; after which Mullá 'Alí Ahmad made with great skill the following additions. On one side, Afzalu dínárin yanfuquhu alrajulu, dínárun yanfuquhu 'ala açhábihi fí sabílilláh,—“The best coin which a man expends, is a coin which he spends on his co-religionists in the path of God.”

And on the other side he wrote,

Alsultánu al'álí alkhalífatu almuta'álí khallada alláhu ta'ála mulkahu wa sultánahu, wa abbada 'adlahu wa ihsánahu,—“The sublime sultán, the exalted calif, may God the Almighty perpetuate his kingdom and his reign, and give eternity to his justice and bounty!”

Afterwards all this was removed, and the following two Rubá'ís of the court-poet and philosopher Shaikh Faizí were engraved by him. On one side,

and, Alláhu akbar, jalla jaláluhu,—“God is great, may his His glory shine forth!” in the middle. And on the other side,

and the date, according to the Divine era, in the middle.

2. There is another gold coin, of the same name and shape, weighing 91 tólahs and 8 máshahs, in value equal to 100 round muhurs, at 11 máshahs each. It has the same impression as the preceding.

3. The Rahas is the half of each of the two preceding coins. It is sometimes made square. On one side it has the same impression as the s'hansah, and on the other side the following Rubá'í by Faizí:—

4. The A´tmah is the fourth part of the s'hansah, round and square. Some have the same impression as the s'hansah; and some have on one side the following Rubá'í by Faizí—

And on the other side the preceding Rubá'í.

5. The Binsat, of the same two forms as the átmah, in value equal to one-fifth of the first coin.

There are also gold coins of the same shape and impression, in value equal to one-eighth, one-tenth, one-twentieth, one twenty-fifth, of the s'hansah.

6. The Chugul,¹ of a square form, is the fiftieth part of the s'hansah, in value equal to two muhurs.²

7. The round La'l i Jalálí,³ in weight and value equal to two round muhurs, having on one side “Alláhu akbar,” and on the other Yá mu'ínu— “O helper.”

8. The A´ftábí is round, weighs 1 tólah, 2 máshahs and 4¾ surkhs, in value equal to 12 rupees. On one side, “Alláhu akbar, jalla jalláluhu,” and on the other the date according to the Divine era, and the place where it is struck.

9. The Iláhí is round, weighs 12 máshahs, 1¾ surkhs, bears the same stamp as the A´ftábí, and has a value of 10 rupees.

10. The square La'l i Jalálí is of the same weight and value; on one side “Alláhu akbar,” and on the other “jalla jaláluhu.”

11. The 'Adlgutkah is round, weighs 11 máshahs, and has a value of nine rupees. On one side “Alláhu akbar,” and on the other, “Yá mu'ínu.”

12. The Round muhur, in weight and value equal to the 'Adlgutkah, but of a different¹ stamp.

13. Mihrábí² is in weight, value, and stamp, the same as the round muhur.

14. The Mu'íní is both square and round. In weight and value it is equal to the La'l i jalálí, and the round muhur. It bears the stamp “yá mu'ínu.”

15. The Chahárgóshah, in stamp and weight the same as the A´ftábí.

16. The Gird is the half of the Iláhí, and has the same stamp.

17. The D'han³ is half a La'l i Jalálí.⁴

18. The Salímí is the half of the 'Adlgutkah.

19. The Rabí⁵ is a quarter of the A´ftábí.

20. The Man, is a quarter of the Iláhí, and Jalálí.

21. The Half Salímí is a quarter of the 'Adlgutkah.

22. The Panj is the fifth part of the Iláhí.

23. The Pandau is the fifth part of the La'l i Jalálí; on one side is a lily, and on the other a wild rose.

24. The Sumní, or Ashtsiddh, is one-eighth of the Iláhí; on one side “Alláhu akbar,” and on the other “jalla jaláluhu.”

25. The Kalá is the sixteenth part of the Iláhí. It has on both sides a wild rose.

26. The Zarah is the 32nd part of an Iláhí, and has the same stamp as the kalá.

As regards gold coins, the custom followed in the imperial mint is to coin La'l i jalális, D'hans, and Mans, each coin for the space of a month. The other gold coins are never stamped without special orders.

1. The Rupee is round, and weighs eleven and one half máshahs. It was first introduced in the time of Shér Khán. It was perfected during this reign, and received a new stamp, on one side “Alláhu akbar, jalla jaláluhu,” and on the other the date. Although the market price is sometimes more or less than forty dáms, yet this value is always set upon it in the payment of salaries.

2. The Jalálah is of a square form, which was introduced during the present reign. In value and stamp it is the same as No. 1.

3. The Darb is half a Jalálah.

4. The Charn is a quarter Jalálah.

5. The Pandau is a fifth of the Jalálah.

6. The Asht is the eighth part of the Jalálah.

7. The Dasá is one-tenth of the Jalálah.

8. The Kalá is the sixteenth part of the Jalálah.

9. The Súkí is one-twentieth of the Jalálah.

The same fractional parts are adopted for the [round] Rupee, which are however different in form.

1. The Dám weighs 5 tánks, i. e., 1 tólah, 8 máshahs, and 7 surkhs; it is the fortieth part of the rupee. At first this coin was called Paisah, and also Bahlóli; now it is known under this name (dám). On one side the place is given where it was struck, and on the other the date.

For the purpose of calculation, the dám is divided into twenty-five parts, each of which is called a jétal.¹ This imaginary division is only used by accountants.

2. The Adhélah is half of a dám.

3. The Páulah is a quarter dám.

4. The Damrí is one-eighth of a dám.

In the beginning of this reign, gold was coined to the glory of his Majesty in many parts of the empire; now gold coins are struck at four places only, viz., at the seat of the government, in Bengal, Ahmadábád (Gujrát), and Kábul. Silver and copper are likewise coined in these four places, and besides in the following ten places,—Iláhabás, A´grah, Ujain, Súrat, Dihlí, Patana, Kashmír, Láhór, Multán, Tándah. In twenty-eight towns copper coins only are struck, viz., Ajmír, Audh, Atak, Alwar, Badáon, Banáras, Bhakkar, Bahírah, Patan, Jaunpúr, Jálandhar, Hardwár, Hisár Fírúzah, Kálpí, Gwáliár, Górak'hpúr, Kalánúr, Lak'hnau, Mandú, Nágór, Sarhind, Siyálkót, Sarónj, Saháranpúr, Sárangpúr, Sambal, Qanauj, Rantanbhúr.

Mercantile affairs in this country are mostly transacted in round muhurs, rupees, and dáms.

Unprincipled men cause a great deal of mischief by rubbing down the coins, or by employing similar methods; and in consequence of the damage done to the nation at large, his Majesty continually consults experienced men, and from his knowledge of the spirit of the age, issues new regulations, in order to prevent such detrimental practices.

The currency underwent several changes. First, when (in the 27th year) the reins of the government were in the hands of Rájah Tódarmal,¹ four kinds of muhurs were allowed to be current: A. There was a La'l i Jalálí, which had the name of his Majesty stamped on it, and weighed 1 tólah, 1¾ surkhs. It was quite pure, and had a value of 400 dáms. Again, there existed from the beginning of this glorious reign, a muhur with the imperial stamp, of which three degrees passed as current, viz., B. This muhur, when perfectly pure, and having the full weight of 11 máshahs. Its value was 360 dáms. If from wear and tear it had lost in weight within three grains of rice, it was still allowed to be of the same degree, and no difference was made. C. The same muhur, when it had lost in weight from four to six rice grains; its value was 355 dáms. D. The same muhur when it had lost in wright from six to nine rice grains; its value was 350 dáms.

Muhurs of less weight than this were considered as bullion.

Of Rupees, three kinds were then current, viz., A. one of a square form, of pure silver, and weighing 11½ máshahs; it went under the name of Jalálah, and had a value of 40 dáms. B. The round, old Akbarsháhí Rupee, which, when of full weight, or even at a surkh less, was valued at 39 dáms. C. The same rupees, when in weight two surkhs less, at 38 dáms.

Rupees of less weight than this were considered as bullion.

Secondly, on the 18th Mihr of the 29th year of the Divine era, 'Azaduddaulah Amír Fathullah¹ of Shíráz coming at the head of affairs, a royal order was issued, that on the muhurs, as far as three grains; and on the rupees, as far as six grains short weight, no account should be taken, but that they should be reckoned of full weight. If muhurs were still less, they should make a deduction for the deficiency, whatever their deficiency might be; but it was not ordered, that only muhurs down to nine grains less, should be regarded as muhurs. Again, according to the same regulation, the value of a muhur that was one surkh deficient, was put down as 355 dáms and a fraction; and hence they valued the price of one surkh of coined gold at the low rate of four dáms and a fraction. According to Tódarmal's regulation, a deduction of five dáms was made for a deficiency of one surkh; and if the muhur had lost something more than the three grains, for which he had made no account, even if it were only ½ surkh, full five dáms were subtracted; and for a deficiency of 1½ surkhs, he deducted ten dáms, even if the deficiency should not be quite 1½ surkhs. By the new law of 'Azaduddaulah, the value of a muhur was lessened by six dáms and a fraction, as its gold was worth 353 dáms and a fraction only.¹

'Azaduddaulah abolished also the regulation, according to which the value of a round rupee had been fixed at one dám less than the square one, notwithstanding its perfection in weight and purity, and fixed the value of the round rupee, when of full weight or not less than one surkh, at forty dáms; and whilst formerly a deduction of two dáms was made for a deficiency of two surkhs, they now deduct for the same deficiency only one dám and a fraction.

Thirdly, when 'Azaduddaulah went to Khándésh, the Rájah estimated the value of muhurs that had been expressed in Jalálah rupees, in round rupees; and from his obstinate and wrangling disposition, fixed again the deficiencies on muhurs and rupees according to the old rates.

Fourthly, when Qulij Khán² received the charge of the government, he adopted the Rájah's manner of estimating the muhurs; but he deducted ten dáms for a deficiency in the weight of a muhur, for which the Rájah had deducted five dáms; and twenty dáms, for the former deduction of ten dáms; whilst he considered every muhur as bullion, if the deficiency was 1½ surkhs. Similarly, every rupee, the deficiency of which was one surkh, was considered as bullion.

Lastly, his Majesty trusting to his advisers, and being occupied by various important affairs, paid at first but little attention to this subject, till after having received some intimation of the unsatisfactory state of this matter, he issued another regulation, which saved the nation further losses, and was approved of by every one, far and near. On the 26th of Bahman, of the year 36, according to the Divine era (A. D. 1592,) he adopted the second [i. e., 'Azaduddaulah's] method, with one exception, namely, he did not approve of the provision that a muhur the deficiency of which did not exceed three, and a rupee, the deficiency of which did not exceed six, surkhs, should still be regarded as of full weight. And this regulation was the only effectual method for preventing the fraudulent practices of unprincipled men; for the former regulations contained no remedy in cases when the officers of the mint coined money of the above deficiency in weight, or when treasurers reduced full coins to the same deficiency. Besides shameless, thievish people made light grain weights, and used to reduce muhurs, deficient by three grains, to six grains deficiency, whilst they accepted muhurs six grains deficient as muhurs deficient by nine grains. This reduction of coins being continued, large quantities of gold were stolen, and the losses seemed never to end. By the command of his Majesty grain weights of bábághúrí were made, which were to be used in weighing. On the same date other stringent regulations were issued, that the treasurers and revenue collectors should not demand from the tax-payers any particular species of coins, and that the exact deficiency in weight and purity, whatever it might be, should be taken according to the present rate and no more. This order of his Majesty disappointed the wicked, taught covetous men moderation, and freed the nation from the cruelty of oppressors.

Having given some account of the currency of the empire, I shall add a few particulars regarding these two ancient coins, and remark on the value of ancient coinage.

The Dirham, or Dirhám, as the word is sometimes given, is a silver coin, the shape of which resembled that of a date stone. During the califate of 'Omar, it was changed to a circular form; and in the time of Zubair, it was impressed with the words Alláhu (God), barakat (blessing). Hajjáj stamped upon it the chapter of the Qorán called Ikhláç; and others say that he imprinted it with his own name. Others assert, that 'Omar was the first who stamped an impression on dirhams; whilst, according to some, Greek, Khusravite, and Himyarite dirhams were in circulation at the time of Abdulmalik, the son Marwán, by whose order Hajjáj, the son of Yúsuf, had struck dirhams. Some say that Hajjáj refined the base dirhams, and coined them with the words Alláhu ahad (God is one), and Alláhu çamad (God is eternal); and these dirhams were called makrúhah (abominable), because God's holy name was thereby dishonoured; unless this term be a corruption of some other name. After Hajjáj, at the time of the reign of Yazíd ibn i Abdulmalik, 'Omar ibn Hubairah coined in the kingdom of 'Iráq better dirhams than Hajjáj had made; and afterwards Khálid ibn Abdullah Qasrí, when governor of 'Iráq, made them still finer, but they were brought to the highest degree of purity by Yúsuf ibn 'Omar. Again, it has been said that Muç'ab ibn Zubair was the first who struck dirhams. Various accounts are given of their weights; some saying that they were of ten or nine, or six or five misqáls; whilst others give the weights of twenty, twelve and ten qíráts, asserting at the same time that 'Omar had taken a dirham of each kind, and formed a coin of fourteen qíráts, being the third part of the aggregate sum. It is likewise said that at the time of 'Omar there were current several kinds of dirhams: first, some of eight dángs, which were called baghlí, after Rás baghl who was an assay-master, and who struck dirhams by the command of 'Omar; but others call them baghallí, from baghal, which is the name of a village;¹ secondly, some of four dángs, which were called tabrí; thirdly, some of three dángs, which were known as maghribí; and lastly, some of one dáng, named yamaní, the half of which four kinds 'Omar is said to have taken as a uniform average weight. Fázil of Khujand says that in former days dirhams had been of two kinds, first:—full ones of eight and six dángs (1 dang of his = 2 qíráts; 1 qírát = 2 tassúj; 1 tassúj = 2 habbah); and secondly, deficient ones of four dángs and a fraction. Some hold different opinions on this subject.

The Dínár is a gold coin, weighing one misqál, i. e., 13/7 dirhams, as they put 1 misqál = 6 dángs; 1 dáng 4 tassúj; 1 tassúj = 2 habbahs; 1 habbah = 2 jaus (barley grains); 1 jau = 6 khardals (mustard-grain); 1 khardal = 12 fals; 1 fal = 6 fatíls; 1 fatíl = 6 naqírs; 1 naqír = 6 qitmírs; and 1 qitmír = 12 zarrahs. One misqál, by this calculation, would be equal to 96 barley grains. Misqál is a weight, used in weighing gold; and it is also the name of the coin. From some ancient writings it appears that the Greek misqál is out of use, and weighs two qíráts less than this; and that the Greek dirham differs likewise from others, being less in weight by 1/6 or ¼ of a misqál.

One round muhur of 11 máshahs buys one tólah of gold of 10 bán; or one tólah, 2 surkhs of 9¾ bán; or 1 tólah, 4 s. of 8½ bán; or 1 tólah 6 s. of 9¼ bán; or 1 tólah, 1 máshah of 9 bán; and similarly, according to the same proportion, the decrease of one bán increases the quantity of gold which a muhur can buy, by one máshah.

The merchant buys for 100 La'l i Jalálí muhurs 130 t. 2 m. 05/8d; s. of Hun gold of 8¼ báns. Of this quantity 22 t. 9 m. 7½ s. burn away in melting, and mix with the khák i khaláç, so that 107 t. 4 m. 11/8b; s. of pure gold remain, which are coined into 105 muhurs, leaving a remainder of nearly half a tólah of gold, the value of which is 4 rupees. From the khák i khaláç are recovered 2 t. 11 m. 4 s. of gold, and 11 t. 11 m. 4½ s. of silver, the value of both of which is 35 rupees, 12½ tangahs,¹ so that altogether the abovementioned quantity of Hun gold yields 105 muhurs, 39 Rs., and 25 dáms.

This sum is accounted for as follows. First, 2 Rs. 18 d. 12½ j., due to the workmen according to the rates which have been explained above; secondly, 5 Rs. 8d. 8 j. for ingredients; which sum is made up of 1 R. 4 d. 1½ j. on account of articles used in refining the metal, viz., 26 d. 16½ j. dung; 4 d. 20j. salóní; 1 d. 10 j. water; 11 d. 5 j. quicksilver, and 4 Rs. 4 d. 6¼j. on account of the khák i khaláç (viz., 21 d. 7¼ j. charcoal, and 3 Rs. 22 d. 24j. lead); thirdly, 6 Rs. 37½ d., which the owners of the gold take from the merchant, as a consideration for lending him the gold; this item goes to the Díwán in case the gold belongs to the exchequer; fourthly, 100 La'l i Jalálí muhurs, which the merchant gets in exchange for the gold which he brought; fifthly, 12 Rs. 37 d. 3½ j. which the merchant takes as his profit; sixthly, 5 muhurs 12 Rs. 3½ d., which go to the exchequer.² According to this proportion, merchants make their profits.

Although gold is imported into Hindustan, it is to be found in abundance in the northern mountains of the country, as also in Tibet. Gold may also be obtained by the Salóní-process from the sands of the Ganges and Indus, and several other rivers, as most of the waters of this country are mixed with gold: however, the labour and expense greatly exceed the profit.

One Rupee buys 1 t. 0 m. 2 s. of pure silver; hence for 950 Rs. the merchant gets 969 t. 9 m. 4 s. of silver. Out of this quantity, 5 t. 0 m. 4¾ s. burn away in casting ingots. The remainder yields 1006 rupees, and a surplus of silver worth 27½ dáms. The several items are—first, 2 Rs. 22 d. 12 j., as wages for the workmen (viz., The Weighman 5 d. 7¾j., the Cháshnígír 3 d. 4¼; the Melter 6 d. 12½ j.; the Zarráb 2 Rs. 1 d. 0 j.; the Sikkachí 6 d. 12½ j.); secondly, 10 d. 15 j., on account of requisites (viz., 10 d. charcoal, and 15 j. water); thirdly, 50 Rs. 13 d. 0 j., payable to the Díwán; fourthly, 950 Rs., which the merchant gets in exchange for the silver he brought; and fifthly, 3 Rs. 21 d. 10½ j., being the profit of the merchant. If he refines the base silver at his own house, his profit will be much greater; but when he brings it to be coined, his profit cannot be so great.

Of the silver called lárí and sháhí, and the other above mentioned baser coins, one rupee buys 1 t. 0 m. 4 s., so that 950 Rupees will buy 989 t. 7 m. In the Sabbákí process, 14 t. 10 m. 1 s. burn away, being at the rate of 1½ t. per cent.; and in making the ingots, 4 t. 11 m. 3 s. are lost in the fire. The remainder yields 1012 rupees; and from the khák i k'haral 3½ Rs. are recoverable. The several items are—first, 4 Rs. 27 d. 24¾ j. on account of the wages of the workmen (viz., the Weighman 5 d. 7¾ j.; the Sabbák 2 Rs. 0 d. 19 j.; the Qurçkób 4 d. 19 j.; the Cháshnígír 3 d. 4 j.; the Melter 6 d. 12½ j.; the Zarráb 2 Rs. 1 d.; the Sikkachí 6 d. 12½ j.); secondly, 5 Rs. 24 d. 15 j. for necessaries, (viz. 5 Rs. 14 d. lead; 10 d. charcoal; and 15 j. water); thirdly, 50 Rs. 24 d., payable to the state; fourthly, 950 Rs. which the merchant receives for his silver; fifthly, 4 Rs. 29 d. his profit.¹ Sometimes the merchant gets the silver cheap, when his profit is much larger.

1044 dáms buy one man of copper, i. e., at the rate of 26 d. 2½ j. per sér. Out of this quantity, one sér is burnt away in melting; and as each sér yields 30 dáms, there are coined altogether 1170 dáms, from which the merchant takes his capital, and 18 d. 19½ j. as profit. 33 d. 10 j. go to the workmen; and 15 d. 8 j. for necessaries, (viz. 13 d. 8 j. for charcoal; 1 d. for water; and 1 d. for clay); 58½ d. go to the state.

The Creator by calling into existence the four elements, has raised up wonderful forms. Fire is absolutely warm, dry, light; air is relatively warm, moist, light; water is relatively cold, moist, heavy; earth is absolutely cold, dry, heavy. Heat is the cause of lightness, and cold of heaviness; moistness easily separates particles, whilst dryness prevents their separation. This wonderful arrangement calls four compounds into existence, first, the ásár í 'ulwí;¹ secondly, stones; thirdly, plants; fourthly, animals. From the heat of the sun, watery particles become lighter, mix with the air, and rise up. Such a mixture is called bukhár (gas). From the same cause, earthy particles mix with the air, and rise up. This mixture is called dukhán (vapour). Sometimes, however, airy particles mix with the earth. Several philosophers call both of the above mixtures bukhár, but distinguish the mixture of watery particles and air by the name of moist, or watery bukhár, whilst they call the mixture of earthy particles and air, dry bukhár, or dukhání bukhár (vapour-like gas). Both mixtures, they say, produce above the surface of the earth, clouds, wind, rain, snow, &c. and, below the surface of our earth, earthquakes, springs, and minerals. They also look upon the bukhár as the body, and upon the dukhán as the soul of things. From a difference in their quality and quantity, various bodies are called into existence, as described in books on philosophy.

Minerals are of five kinds: first, those which do not melt on account of their dryness, as the yáqút; secondly, those which do not melt, on account of their liquidity, as quicksilver; thirdly, those which can be melted, being at the same time neither malleable, nor inflammable, as blue stone; fourthly, those which can be melted, being however not malleable, but inflammable, as sulphur; fifthly, those which can be melted, and are malleable, but not inflammable, as gold. A body is said to melt, when from the union of the inherent principles of dryness and moisture its particles are moveable; and a body is called malleable, when we can make it extend in such a manner, as to yield a longer and wider surface, without, however, either separating a part from it, or adding a part to it.

When in a mixture of bukhár with dukhán, the former is greater in quantity, and when, after their mixture and complete union, the heat of the sun causes the whole to contract, QUICKSILVER will be produced. Since no part of it is destitute of dukhán, the dryness is perceptible; hence, on touching it, it does not affect the hand, but flees from it; and since its contraction was produced by heat, no warmth can dissolve it. Again, when in a mixture of bukhár and dukhán, both are nearly in equal proportion, a tenacious greasy moisture is produced. At the time of fermentation, airy particles enter, when cold causes the whole to contract. This mass is inflammable. If the dukhán and the greasiness are a little in excess, SULPHUR will be produced, in colour either red or yellow, or grey or white. If the proportion of the dukhán is large, and that of the grease less, ARSENIC will result, which is red and yellow. And if the quantity of the bukhár is greater, pure, black and yellow NAPHTHA will arise, after the mixture gets solid. Since in all, cold was the cause of the contraction, they can be melted; and on account of the prevalence of greasiness and tenacious moistness, they are also inflammable, though, on account of the moistness, not malleable.

Although quicksilver and sulphur are the only component parts of “the seven bodies,” there arise various forms from a difference in purity, or from peculiar circumstances of the mixture, or from a variety of the action of the component parts on each other. Thus silver will result, when neither of the two components mixes with earthy particles, when they are pure and become perfectly united, and when the sulphur is white, and less than the quicksilver. Or, when both are in equal proportions and the sulphur red, and capable of colouring, gold will originate. Again, under similar circumstances, if both contract after the mixture, but before a complete union has been effected, khárchíní will be produced. This body is also called A´hanchíní, and seems really to be raw gold; some say, it is a kind of copper. Again, if only the sulphur be impure, and the quicksilver the larger component, with an additional power of burning, copper will result. And if the mixture be not thorough, and the quicksilver larger, tin will be produced; some say that purity of the components is essential. If both compounds be of an inferior kind, closely mixed, and if the earthy particles of the quicksilver have a tendency of separating, and the power of burning be inherent in the sulphur, iron will result. And if under similar conditions the intermixture be not perfect, and the quicksilver quantitatively larger, lead will come into existence. These seven metals are called the seven bodies; and quicksilver has the name of the mother of the bodies, and sulphur, the father of the bodies. Quicksilver is also denominated the spirit, and arsenic and sulphur, the pivots of life.

Jast (pewter), which, according to the opinions of some, is Rúh i tútiyá, and resembles lead, is nowhere mentioned in philosophical books, but there is a mine of it in Hindustan, in the territory of Jálór, which is a dependency of the Súbah of Ajmír. Some practical mechanics¹ are of opinion that the metal called riçáç is a silver in the state of leprosy, and quicksilver a silver in the state of apoplexy; that lead is gold apoplectic and burnt, and bronze crude gold; and that the chemist, like the doctor, can restore these diseased metals by the principles of similarity and opposition.

Practical men form of the above seven bodies several compounds, used for ornaments, vessels, &c. Among them I may mention, 1. Safídrú, which the people of Hindustan call káṉsí. It is a mixture of 4 sérs of copper to 1 sér of tin, melted together. 2. Rúi, 4 sérs of copper to 1½ sérs of lead. It is called in this country bhangár. 3. Brass, which the Hindus call pítal, is made in three ways, first, 2½ sérs copper to 1 sér rúh i tútiya, which is malleable, when cold; secondly, 2 sérs of copper to 1 sér of ruh i tútiyá, which is malleable, when heated; thirdly, 2 sérs of copper to 1 sér of rúh i tútiyá, not worked with the hammer, but by casting. 4. Sím i sukhtah, composed of lead, silver, and bronze; it has a black lustre, and is used in painting. 5. Haftjósh, which, like the Khárchíní, is nowhere to be found; it is said to consist of six metals. Some call it tálíqún, whilst others give this name to common copper. 6. Ashtdhát, a compound of eight metals, viz., the six of the haftjósh, rúh i tútiyá, and káṉsí. It is also made of seven components. 7. Kaulpatr, 2 sérs of safídrú, and 1 sér of copper. It is coloured, and looks well, and belongs to the inventions of his Majesty.¹

It has been said above that various compounds result from a mixture of bukhár and dukhán, which themselves consist of light and heavy elements. Besides, bukhár is wet or dry; and a complete union of the two sets in, sometimes before and after the mixture, and sometimes in either of these conditions. It is on this account that a compound whose fiery and airy particles are more numerous than its watery and earthy particles, is lighter than a mineral in which there are more watery and earthy particles; and likewise, every mineral in which the bukhár predominates over the dukhán, is lighter than a mineral, in which the opposite is the case. Again, a mineral in which the complete union of the bukhár and dukhán has set in, is heavier than one which has not reached this degree, because the interstices between the particles, and the entering of air, make a body large and light. Bearing this in mind, we have a means of discovering the weight and lightness of every body. Some one,² now long ago dead, has expressed the weight of several bodies in verses, (metre Mujtass)—

“Quicksilver¹ is 71; Rúi is 46; Tin is 38; Gold 100; Lead 59; Iron 40; Brass and Copper 45; Silver 54.” Others have expressed the numbers by mnemotechnical words in rhyme, (metre Ramal)—

“If you weigh equal volumes of the following nine metals, you will doubtlessly find their different weights as follows:—gold lakan,² quicksilver alam, lead dahan, tin hal, silver nad, iron yakí, copper and brass mah, rúi máh.” If of these nine metals, pieces be taken of equal dimensions, their weights will be different. Some sages ascribe this variety in weight to the difference in the qualitative constitution of the bodies, and trace to it their lightness or heaviness, their floating or sinking in water, and their weights as indicated by common and hydrostatic balances.

Several deep-sighted philosophers compute the weight of bodies with a reference to water. They fill a suitable vessel with water, and throw into it 100 misqáls of each metal; and from the quantities of water thrown out upon the introduction of the metals, are found the differences between them in volume and weight. The greater the quantity of the water is which 100 misqáls of a body displace, the greater is its volume, and the less its weight; and reversely. Thus 100 m. of silver displace 92/3 m. of water, and the same quantity of gold, 5¼ m. If the weight of the water displaced by a body be subtracted from its weight in air, its weight in water will be found. The scales of the air-balance are both suspended in air: those of the hydrostatic balance are both on the surface of the water. As the heavier body possesses the greater power for sinking, it will, in any case, move in the direction of the perpendicular; but, if either of the two scales be on the surface of the water, and the other in the air, the latter scale, although perhaps the lighter, will necessarily sink, as air, being a finer substance than water, does not offer so much resistance. A body will sink in water, if the quantity of water displaced by it be less than the weight of the body; and a body will float, if that quantity be greater; and if the water displaced be equal to the weight of the body, its upper side will coincide with the surface of the water. Abú Raihán has drawn up a table, which I shall insert here.

His Majesty is a great friend of good order and propriety in business. Through order the world becomes a meadow of truth and reality; and that which is but external, receives through it a spiritual meaning. For this reason, the large number of women—a vexatious question even for great statesmen—furnished his Majesty with an opportunity to display his wisdom, and to rise from the low level of worldly dependence to the eminence of perfect freedom. The imperial palace and household are therefore in the best order.

His Majesty forms matrimonial alliances with princes of Hindustan, and of other countries; and secures by these ties of harmony the peace of the world.

As the sovereign, by the light of his wisdom, has raised fit persons from the dust of obscurity, and appointed them to various offices, so does he also elevate faithful persons to the several ranks in the service of the seraglio. Short-sighted men think of impure gold, which will gradually turn into pure gold;¹ but the far-sighted know that his Majesty understands how to use elixirs² and chemical processes. Any kind of growth will alter the constitution of a body; copper and iron will turn to gold, and tin and lead to silver; hence it is no matter of astonishment, if an excellent being changes the worthless into men. “The saying of the wise is true that the eye of the exalted is the elixir for producing goodness.” Such also are the results flowing from the love of order of his Majesty, from his wisdom, insight, regard to rank, his respect for others, his activity, his patience. Even when he is angry, he does not deviate from the right path; he looks at every thing with kindly feelings, weighs rumours well, and is free from all prejudice; he considers it a great blessing to have the good wishes of the people, and does not allow the intoxicating pleasures of this world to overpower his calm judgment.

His Majesty has made a large enclosure with fine buildings inside, where he reposes. Though there are more than five thousand women, he has given to each a separate apartment. He has also divided them into sections, and keeps them attentive to their duties. Several chaste women have been appointed as dáróghahs, and superintendents over each section, and one has been selected for the duties of writer. Thus, as in the imperial offices, every thing is here also in proper order. The salaries are sufficiently liberal. Not counting the presents, which his Majesty most generously bestows, the women of the highest rank receive from 1610 to 1028 Rs. per mensem. Some of the servants have from 51 to 20, others from 40 to 2 Rs. Attached to the private audience hall of the palace, is a clever and zealous writer, who superintends the expenditure of the Harem, and keeps an account of the cash and the stores. If a woman wants anything, within the limit of her salary, she applies to one of the Tahwíldárs (cash-keepers) of the seraglio. The Tahwíldár then sends a memorandum to the writer, who checks it, when the General Treasurer makes the payment in cash, as for claims of this nature no cheques are given.

The writer also makes out an estimate of the annual expenditure, writes out summarily a receipt, which is countersigned by the ministers of the state. It is then stamped with a peculiar Imperial seal, which is only used in grants connected with the Harem, when the receipt becomes payable. The money itself is paid by the cash-keeper of the General Treasury to the General Tahwíldár, who on the order of the writer of the Harem, hands it over to the several Sub-Tahwíldárs for distribution among the servants of the seraglio. All monies are reckoned in their salaries at the current rate.¹

The inside of the Harem is guarded by sober and active women; the most trustworthy of them are placed about the apartments of his Majesty. Outside of the enclosure the eunuchs are placed; and at a proper distance, there is a guard of faithful Rájpúts, beyond whom are the porters of the gates. Besides, on all four sides, there are guards of Nobles, Ahadís, and other troops, according to their ranks.

Whenever Bégums, or the wives of nobles, or other women of chaste character, desire to be presented, they first notify their wish to the servants of the seraglio, and wait for a reply. From thence they send their request to the officers of the palace, after which those who are eligible are permitted to enter the Harem. Some women of rank obtain permission to remain there for a whole month.

Notwithstanding the great number of faithful guards, his Majesty does not dispense with his own vigilance, but keeps the whole in proper order.

It would be difficult to describe a large encampment; but I shall say something on the equipage used for hunting parties and short journeys.

1. The Gulálbár is a grand enclosure, the invention of his Majesty, the doors of which are made very strong, and secured with locks and keys. It is never less than one hundred yards square. At its eastern end a pavilion of two entrances is erected, containing 54 divisions, 24 yards long, and 14 broad; and in the middle there stands a large Chaubín ráotí,¹ and round about it a Sarápardah.¹ Adjoining to the Chaubín, they built up a two-storied pavilion, in which his Majesty performs divine worship, and from the top of which, in the morning, he receives the compliments of the nobility. No one connected with the seraglio enters this building without special leave. Outside of it, twenty-four chaubín ráotís are erected, 10 yards long, and 6 yards wide, each separated by a canvass, where the favourite women reside. There are also other pavilions and tents for the servants, with Sáibáns² of gold embroidery, brocade, and velvet. Adjoining to this is a Sarápardah of carpet, 60 yards square, within which a few tents are erected, the place for the Urdúbégís,³ and other female servants. Farther on up to the private audience hall, there is a fine open space, 150 yards long and 100 yards broad, called the Mahtábí; and on both sides of it, a screen is set up as before described which is supported by poles 6 yards long, fixed in the ground at distances of two yards. The poles are one yard in the ground, and are ornamented with brass knobs on the top, and kept firm by two ropes, one passing inside, and the other outside of the enclosure. The guards watch here, as has been described.

In the midst of the plain is a raised platform,⁴ which is protected by an awning, or Namgírah, supported by four poles. This is the place, where his Majesty sits in the evening, and none but those who are particularly favoured, are here admitted. Adjoining to the Gulálbár, there is a circular enclosure, consisting of twelve divisions, each of thirty yards, the door of the enclosure opening into the Mahtabí; and in the midst of it, is a Chaubín ráotí, ten yards long, and a tent containing forty divisions, over which twelve awnings are spread, each of twelve yards, and separated by canvasses. This place, in every division of which a convenient closet is constructed, is called Ibachkí, which is the (Chagatái) name used by his Majesty. Adjoining to this a Sarápardah is put up, 150 yards in length and breadth, containing sixteen divisions, of thirty-six square yards, the Sarápardah being, as before, sustained by poles with knobs. In the midst of it the state-hall is erected, by means of a thousand carpets; it contains seventy-two rooms, and has an opening fifteen yards wide. A tentlike covering, or Qalandarí, made of waxcloth, or any other lighter material, is spread over it, which affords protection against the rain and the sun; and round about it, are fifty awnings, of twelve yards each. The pavilion, which serves as Díwán i kháç, or private audience hall, has proper doors and locks. Here the nobles, and the officers of the army, after having obtained leave through the Bakhshís,¹ pass before the Emperor, the list of officers eligible for admission being changed on the first of every month. The place is decorated, both inside and outside with carpets of various colours, and resembles a beautiful flower-bed. Outside of it, to a distance of 350 yards, ropes are drawn, fastened to poles, which are set up at a distance of three yards from each other. Watchmen are stationed about them. This is the Díwán i 'A´m, or public audience hall, round which, as above described, the various guards are placed. At the end of this place, at a distance of twelve tanábs is the Naqqárah Khánah,² and in the midst of the area the A´kásdiah³ is lighted up.

Some encampments, as just now described, are sent off, and one of them is put up by the Farráshes on a piece of ground which the Mír Manzils⁴ have selected as an eligible spot, whilst the other camp furniture is sent in advance, to await the approach of his Majesty. Each encampment requires for its carriage 100 elephants, 500 camels, 400 carts, and 100 bearers. It is escorted by 500 troopers, Mansabdárs,⁵ Ahadís. Besides, there are employed a thousand Farráshes, natives of I´rán, Túrán, and Hindustan, 500 pioneers, 100 water-carriers, 50 carpenters, tent-makers, and torch-bearers, 30 workers in leather, and 150 sweepers.

The monthly pay of the foot varies from 240 to 130 dáms.

Although his Majesty but rarely collects his armies, a large number of troops accompany him in whatever direction an expedition may go; but a considerable number, in every province, are employed on various services, and are not allowed to follow him. On account of the crowding of camp-followers, and the number of the troops themselves, it would take a soldier days to find his tent; and how much worse would it be for a stranger? His Majesty has invented an admirable method of encamping his troops, which is a source of much comfort to them. On an open ground they pitch the imperial seraglio, the audience hall, and the Naqqárah khánah, all occupying a space the length of which is 1530 yards. To the right and left, and behind, is an open space of 360 yards, which no one but the guards are allowed to enter. Within it, at a distance of 100 yards to the left centre are the tents of Maryam Makání,¹ Gulbadan Bégum, and other chaste ladies, and the tents of Prince Dányál; to the right, those of Prince Sultán Salím; and to the left, those of Prince Sháh Murád. Behind their tents, at some distance, the offices and workshops are placed, and at a further distance of 30 yards behind them, at the four corners of the camp, the bázárs. The nobles are encamped without on all sides, according to their rank.

The guards for Thursday, Friday and Saturday, encamp in the centre; those for Sunday and Monday, on the right; and those for Tuesday and Wednesday, on the left.

His Majesty maintains that it is a religious duty and divine praise to worship fire and light; surly, ignorant men consider it forgetfulness of the Almighty, and fire worship. But the deep-sighted know better. As the external form of the worship of “the select”² is based upon propriety, and as people think the neglect of some sort of worship abominable, there can be nothing improper in the veneration of that exalted element which is the source of man's existence, and of the duration of his life; nor should base thoughts enter such a matter.

How beautifully has Shaikh Sharafuddín Munyarí³ said, “What can be done with a man who is not satisfied with the lamp, when the sun is down?” Every flame is derived from that fountain of divine light, (the sun), and bears the impression of its holy essence. If light and fire did not exist, we should be destitute of food and medicines; the power of sight would be of no avail to the eyes. The fire of the sun is the torch of God's sovereignty.

At noon of the day, when the sun enters the 19th degree of Aries, the whole world being then surrounded by his light, they expose a round piece of a white and shining stone, called in Hindí Súrajkránt, to the rays of the sun. A piece of cotton is then held near it, which catches fire from the heat of the stone. This celestial fire is committed to the care of proper persons. The lamp-lighters, torch-bearers and cooks of the household use it for their offices; and when the year has passed away in happiness, they renew the fire. The vessel in which this fire is preserved, is called Agingir, i. e., fire-pot.

There is also a shining white stone, called Chandrkránt, which, upon being exposed to the beams of the moon, drips water.

Every afternoon, one ghaṛí¹ before sunset, his Majesty, if on horseback, alights, or if sleeping, he is awakened. He then lays aside the splendour of royalty, and brings his external appearance in harmony with his heart. And when the sun sets, the attendants light twelve white candles, on twelve candlesticks of gold and silver, and bring them before his Majesty, when a singer of sweet melodies, with a candle in his hand, sings a variety of delightful airs to the praise of God, beginning and concluding with a prayer for the continuance of this auspicious reign. His Majesty attaches the utmost importance to praise and prayer, and earnestly asks God for renewed light.

It is impossible to describe the beauty and various forms of the candlesticks and shades, and to give an account of the offices of the workmen. Some of the candlesticks weigh ten mans and upwards, and are adorned with various designs; some single, others of two branches and more: they give light to the internal eye. His Majesty has invented a candlestick, one yard high. Five others are placed on the top of it, and each is adorned with the figure of an animal. White wax candles, three yards and upwards in length, are cast for it, so that a ladder is required to snuff it. Besides there are everywhere flambeaux² both inside and outside, which increase the light very much. The first, second, and third nights of every lunar month, when there is moonlight but for a short time, eight wicks are used;³ from the fourth to the tenth, they decrease one in number every night, so that on the tenth night, when the moon is very bright, one is sufficient; and they continue in this state till the fifteenth, and increase one wick every day from the sixteenth to the nineteenth. For the twentieth night the number is the same as on the nineteenth; on the twenty-first and twenty-second they increase one daily; the twenty-third is the same as the twenty-second; and from the twenty-fourth to the last, eight wicks are lighted up. They allow for every wick one sér of oil, and half a sér of cotton. In some places there are fat-burners, where grease is burnt instead of oil. The allowance varies according to the size of the wick.

In order to render the royal camp conspicuous to those who come from far, his Majesty has caused to be erected, in front of the Durbár, a pole upwards of forty yards high, which is supported by sixteen ropes; and on the top of the pole is a large lantern, which they call A´kásdiah.¹ Its light is seen from great distances, guides the soldiers to the imperial camp, and helps them to find their tents. In former times, before the lamp was erected, the men had to suffer hardships from not being able to find the road.

In this department, Mansabdars, Ahadís, and other troops, are employed. The allowance of a foot soldier never exceeds 2400, and is never less than 80 dáms.

The Shamsah² of the arch of royalty is a divine light, which God directly transfers to kings, without the assistance of men; and kings are fond of external splendour, because they consider it an image of the Divine glory. I shall mention some of the insignia used at present.

1. The Aurang, or throne, is made of several forms; some are inlaid with precious stones, and others are made of gold, silver, &c. 2. The Chatr, or umbrella, is adorned with the most precious jewels, of which there are never less than seven. 3. The Sáibán is of an oval form, a yard in length, and its handle, like that of the umbrella, is covered with brocade, and ornamented with precious stones. One of the attendants holds it, to keep off the rays of the sun. It is also called A´ftábgír. 4. The Kaukabah,³ of which several are hung up before the assembly hall.

These four insignia are only used by kings.

5. The 'Alam, or standard. When the king rides out, not less than five of these are carried along with the Qur,⁴ wrapped up in scarlet cloth bags. On days of festivity, and in battle, they are unfurled. 6. The Chatrtóq, a kind of 'Alam, but smaller than it, is adorned with the tails of Thibetan yaks. 7. The Tumantóq is like the Chatrtóq, but longer. Both insignia are flags of the highest dignity, and the latter is bestowed upon great nobles only. 8. The Jhanḍá is an Indian flag. The Qur necessarily contains a flag of each kind; but on great occasions many are displayed.

Of musical instruments used in the Naqqárahkhánah, I may mention, 1. the Kuwargah, commonly called damámah; there are eighteen pair of them more or less; and they give a deep sound. 2. The naqqárah, twenty pair, more or less. 3. The duhul, of which four are used. 4. The Karaná¹ is made of gold, silver, brass, and other metals: and they never blow fewer than four. 5. The surná of the Persian and Indian kinds; they blow nine together. 6. The nafír, of the Persian, European, and Indian kinds; they blow some of each kind. 7. The sing is of brass, and made in the form of a cow's horn; they blow two together. 8. The sanj, or cymbal, of which three pair are used.

Formerly the band played four ghaṛís before the commencement of the night, and likewise four ghaṛís before daybreak; now they play first at midnight, when the sun commences his ascent, and the second time at dawn. One ghaṛí before sunrise, the musicians commence to blow the surná, and wake up those that are asleep; and one ghaṛí after sun rise, they play a short prelude, when they beat the kuwargah a little, whereupon they blow the karaná, the nafír, and the other instruments, without, however, making use of the naqqárah; after a little pause the surnás are blown again, the time of the music being indicated by the nafírs. One hour later the naqqárahs commence, when all musicians raise “the auspicious strain.”² After this they go through the following seven performances. 1. The Mursalí, which is the name of a tune played by the mursil; and afterwards the bardásht, which consists likewise of certain tunes, played by the whole band. This is followed by a pianissimo, and a crescendo passing over into a diminuendo; 2. The playing of the four tunes, called ikhláṭí, ibtidáí, shírází, qalandarí nigar qatrah,³ or nukhúd qatrah, which occupies an hour. 3. The playing of the old Khwárizmite tunes. Of these his Maiesty has composed more than two hundred, which are the delight of young and old, especially the tunes Jalálsháhí, Mahámír karkat (?), and the Naurózí. 4. The swelling play of the cymbals. 5. The playing of Bá miyán daur. 6. The passing into the tunes azfar, also called ráh i bálá, after which comes a pianissimo. 7. The Khwárizmite tunes, played by the Mursil, after which he passes into the mursalí; he then pauses, and commences the blessings on his Majesty, when the whole band strikes up a pianissimo. Then follows the reading of beautiful sentences and poems. This also lasts for an hour. Afterwards the surna-players perform for another hour, when the whole comes to a proper conclusion.

His Majesty has such a knowledge of the science of music as trained musicians do not possess; and he is likewise an excellent hand in performing, especially on the naqqárah.

Mansabdárs, Ahadís, and other troops are employed in this department. The monthly pay of a foot-soldier does not exceed 340, and is not less than 74 dáms.

Seals are used in the three¹ branches of the Government; in fact every man requires them in his transactions.² In the beginning of the present reign, Mauláná Maqçúd, the seal-engraver, cut in a circular form upon a surface of steel, in the riqá' character, the name of his Majesty and those of his illustrious ancestors up to Tímúrlang; and afterwards he cut another similar seal, in the nasta'líq character, only with his Majesty's name. For judicial transactions a second kind of seal was made, mihrábí in form,³ which had the following verse round the name of his Majesty—

Tamkín made a new seal of the second kind; and afterwards Mauláná 'Alí Ahmad of Dihlí improved both. The round small seal goes by the (chagatái) name of Uzuk, and is used for farmán i sabtís;⁴ and the large one, into which he cut the names of the ancestors of his Majesty, was at first only used for letters to foreign kings, but now-a-days for both. For other orders a square seal is used, engraved with the words Alláhu Akbar, jalla jalálulu, whilst another of a peculiar stamp is used for all matters connected with the seraglio. For the seals attached to farmáṉs, another stamp is used of various forms.

Of seal-engravers I shall mention

1. Mauláná Maqçúd of Herát, one of the servants of Humáyún, who writes well the riqá' and nasta'líq characters. The astrolabe, globes, and various misṭars⁵ which he made, were much admired by people of experience. The patronage of his Majesty perfected his art.

2. Tamkín of Kábul. He was educated in his native country, and brought his art to such a perfection, as to excite the jealousy of the preceding engraver, whom he surpassed in the nasta'líq.

3. Mír Dóst of Kábul. He cuts both the riqá' and nasta'líq characters in cornelian. He does not come up to the preceding artists. His riqá' is better than his nasta'líq. He also understands assaying.

4. Mauláná Ibráhím. In the art of cutting cornelians he is the pupil of his brother Sharaf of Yazd. He surpasses the ancient engravers; and it is impossible to distinguish his riqá' and nasta'líq from the master pieces of the best calligraphers. He engraved the words la'l jalálí, or the glorious ruby, upon all imperial rubies of value.

5. Mauláná 'Alí Ahmad¹ of Dihlí who, according to all calligraphers, stands unsurpassed as steel-engraver, so much so that his engravings are taken as copies. His nasta'líq is charming; but he writes also other characters well. He learned the trade from his father Shaikh Husain, studied the manner of Mauláná Maqçúd, and eventually surpassed all.

His Majesty considers this department as an excellent dwelling-place, a shelter from heat and cold, a protector against the rain, as the ornament of royalty. He looks upon its efficiency as one of the insignia of a ruler, and therefore considers the care bestowed upon it, as a part of Divine worship. The department has been much improved, both in the quality and the quantity of the stores, and also by the introduction of new fashions. I shall mention a few particulars as specimens for future enquirers.

1. The Bárgáh, when large, is able to contain more than ten thousand people. It takes a thousand farráshes a week to erect it with the help of machines. There are generally two door poles, fastened with hinges. If plain, (i. e., without brocade, velvet, or gold ornaments,) a bárgáh costs 10,000 Rupees and upwards, whilst the price of one full of ornaments is unlimited. The price of others may be estimated from the price of a plain one. 2. The Chaubín ráwatí is raised on ten pillars. They go a little into the ground, and are of equal height, with the exception of two, which are a little higher, as the cross beam rests upon them. The pillars have, above and below, a dásah,¹ to keep them firm, and several rafters pass over the dásahs and the crossbeam, the whole being kept tightly together by clamps and bolts and nuts. The walls and the roof consist of mats. There is one door or two; and at the height of the lower dásahs there is a raised platform. The inside is ornamented with brocade and velvet, and the outside with scarlet-sackcloth, tied to the walls with silk tape. 3. The Doáshyánah manzil, or house of two stories, is raised upon eighteen pillars, six yards in height, which support a wooden platform; and into this, pillars of four cubits in length are fixed with bolt and nuts, forming an upper story. The inside and outside are ornamented, as in the preceding. On the march it is used by his Majesty as a sleeping apartment, and also as a place of divine worship, where he prays to the Sun; and hence the building resembles a man who strives after God without forgetting his worldly duties, whose one eye is directed to the solitude of pure devotion, and the other eye to the motly sarái of the world. After the devotions are over, the women are allowed to enter, to pay their compliments, and after them, outsiders. On journeys his Majesty inspects in this building the rations (of the elephants, camels, &c.,) which is called jharókah, or window. 4. The Zamíndóz is a tent made of various forms, sometimes with one, sometimes with two door poles; screens are also hung up within it, so as to form divisions. 5. The 'Ajáibí consists of nine awnings on four pillars. Five of the awnings are square, and four tapering; sometimes they make it so as to contain one division only, supported by a single pole. 6. The Manḍal is composed of five awnings joined together, and is supported by four poles. Four of the awnings are let down, so as to form a private room; sometimes all four are drawn up, or one side only is left open. 7. The At'hk'hambah consists of seventeen awnings, sometimes separate, sometimes joined together; they are supported by eight poles. 8. The Khargáh is a folding tent made in various ways; some with one, others with two doors. 9. The Shámyánah-awning is made of various sizes, but never more than of twelve yards square. 10. The Qalandarí has been described.² 11. The Sarápardah was made in former times of coarse canvass, but his Majesty has now caused it to be made of carpeting, and thereby improved its appearance and usefulness. 12. The Gulálbár, is a wooden screen, its parts being fastened together, like the walls of the Khargáh, with leather straps, so that it can be folded together, when the camp breaks off. The gulálbár is covered with red cloth, tied with tape.

His Majesty has caused carpets to be made of wonderful varieties and charming textures; he has appointed experienced workmen, who have produced many master-pieces. The carpets of I´rán and Túrán are no more thought of, although merchants still import carpets from Góshkán, Khúzistán, Kirmán, and Sabzwár.¹ All kinds of carpet weavers have settled here, and drive a flourishing trade. There are found in every town, especially in A´grah, Fathpúr, and Láhór. In the imperial workshops, single carpets are made 20 gaz, 7 tassujes long, and 6 gaz, 11½ tassújes broad, at a cost of 1810 rupees, which those who are skilled in the business have valued at 2715 rupees.

Takyahnamads, or woollen coverlets, are brought from Kábul and Persia, but are also made in this country.

It would take up too much time to describe the jájams, shatrinjís, balúchís, and the fine mats which look as if woven with silk.

His Majesty calls this source of life “the water of immortality,” and has committed the care of this department to proper persons. He does not drink much, but pays much attention to this matter. Both at home and on travels, he drinks Ganges water. Some trustworthy persons are stationed on the banks of that river, who dispatch the water in sealed jars. When the court was at the capital A´grah and in Fathpúr, the water came from the district of Sorún;² but now³ that his Majesty is in the Panjáb, the water is brought from Hardwár. For the cooking of the food, rain water or water taken from the Jamnah and the Chanáb is used, mixed with a little Ganges water. On journeys and hunting parties his Majesty, from his predilection for good water, appoints experienced men as water-tasters.

Saltpetre, which in gunpowder produces the explosive heat, is used by his Majesty as a means for cooling water, and is thus a source of joy for great and small. Saltpetre is a saline earth. They fill with it a perforated vessel, and pour some water over it, and collecting what drops through, they boil it, clean it, and let it crystalize. One sér of water is then put into a goglet of pewter, or silver, or any other such metal, and the mouth closed. Then two and a half sérs of saltpetre are thrown into a vessel, together with five sérs of water, and in this mixture the goglet is stirred about for a quarter of an hour, when the water in the goglet will become cold. The price of saltpetre varies from ¾ to 4 mans per rupee.

Since the thirtieth year¹ of the Divine Era, when the imperial standards were erected in the Panjáb, snow and ice have come into use. Ice is brought by land and water, by post carriages or bearers, from the district of Panhán, in the northern mountains, about forty-five kós from Láhór. The dealers derive a considerable profit, two to three sérs of ice being sold per rupee. The greatest profit is derived when the ice is brought by water, next when by carriages, and least when by bearers. The inhabitants of the mountains bring it in loads, and sell it in piles containing from 25 to 30 seers, at the rate of 5 dáms. If they have to bring it very far, it costs 24 d. 17 j.; if the distance be an average one, 15 d.

Out of the ten boats employed for the transport of ice, one arrives daily at the capital, each being manned by four boatmen. The ice bundles contain from six to twelve sérs, according to the temperature. A carriage brings two loads. There are fourteen stages, where the horses are changed; and besides, one elephant is used. Twelve pieces of ten to four sérs arrive daily. By this kind of transport, a sér of ice costs in winter 3 d. 21 j.; during the rains 14 d. 20 j.; in the intermediate time 9 d. 21½ j.; and in the average² 5 d. 15½ j. If it is brought by bearers, twenty-eight men are required for the fourteen stages. They bring every day one load, containing four parcels. In the beginning of the year the ice costs 5 d. 19½ j.; in the middle 16 d. 21/8 j.; and in the end 19 d. 155/8 j., per sér; in the average² 87/8 d.

All ranks use ice in summer; the nobles use it throughout the whole year.

His Majesty even extends his attention to this department, and has given many wise regulations for it; nor can a reason be given why he should not do so, as the equilibrium of man's nature, the strength of the body, the capability of receiving external and internal blessings, and the acquisition of worldly and religious advantages, depend ultimately on proper care being shewn for appropriate food. This knowledge distinguishes man from beasts, with whom, as far as mere eating is concerned, he stands upon the same level. If his Majesty did not possess so lofty a mind, so comprehensive an understanding, so universal a kindness, he would have chosen the path of solitude, and given up sleep and food altogether; and even now, when he has taken upon himself the temporal and spiritual leadership of the people, the question, “What dinner has been prepared to-day?” never passes over his tongue. In the course of twenty-four hours his Majesty eats but once, and leaves off before he is fully satisfied; neither is there any fixed time for this meal, but the servants have always things so far ready, that in the space of an hour, after the order has been given, a hundred dishes are served up. The food allowed to the women of the seraglio commences to be taken from the kitchen in the morning, and goes on till night.

Trustworthy and experienced people are appointed to this department; and all good servants attached to the court, are resolved to perform well whatever service they have undertaken. Their head is assisted by the Prime Minister himself. His Majesty has entrusted to the latter the affairs of the state, but especially this important department. Notwithstanding all this, his Majesty is not unmindful of the conduct of the servants. He appoints a zealous and sincere man as Mír Bakáwal, or Master of the Kitchen, upon whose insight the success of the department depends, and gives him several upright persons as assistants. There are also treasurers for the cash and the stores, several tasters, and a clever writer. Cooks from all countries prepare a great variety of dishes of all kinds of grains, greens, meats; also oily, sweet and spicy dishes. Every day such dishes are prepared as the nobles can scarcely command at their feasts, from which you may infer how exquisite the dishes are which are prepared for his Majesty.

In the beginning of the year the Sub-treasurers make out an annual estimate, and receive the amount; the money bags and the door of the store-house being sealed with the seals of the Mír Bakáwal and the writer; and every month a correct statement of the daily expenditure is drawn up, the receipt for which is sealed by the same two officers, when it is entered under the head of the expenditure. At the beginning of every quarter, the Díwán i buyútát¹ and the Mír Bakáwal, collect whatever they think will be necessary; e. g., Suk'hdás rice from Bahráich, Déwzírah rice from Gwáliár, Jinjin rice from Rájórí and Nímlah, g'hi from Hiçár Fírúzah; ducks, water-fowls, and certain vegetables from Kashmír. Patterns are always kept. The sheep, goats, berberies, fowls, ducks, &c., are fattened by the cooks; fowls are never kept longer than a month. The slaughter-house is without the city or the camp, in the neighbourhood of rivers and tanks, where the meat is washed, when it is sent to the kitchen in sacks sealed by the cooks. There it is again washed, and thrown into the pots. The water-carriers pour the water out of their leather bags into earthen vessels, the mouths of which are covered with pieces of cloth, and sealed up; and the water is left to settle before it is used. A place is also told off as a kitchen garden, that there may be a continual supply of fresh greens. The Mír Bakáwal and the writer determine the price of every eatable, which becomes a fixed rule; and they sign the day-book, the estimates, the receipts for transfers, the list of wages of the servants, &c., and watch every transaction. Bad characters, idle talkers, unknown persons are never employed; no one is entertained without security, nor is personal acquaintance sufficient.

The victuals are served up in dishes of gold and silver, stone and earthen-ware; some of the dishes being in charge of each of the Sub-Bakáwals. During the time of cooking, and when the victuals are taken out, an awning is spread, and lookers-on kept away. The cooks tuck up their sleeves, and the hems of their garments, and hold their hands before their mouths and noses when the food is taken out; the cook and the Bakáwal taste it, after which it is tasted by the Mír Bakáwal, and then put into the dishes. The gold and silver dishes are tied up in red cloths, and those of copper and china in white ones. The Mír Bakáwal attaches his seal, and writes on it the names of the contents, whilst the clerk of the pantry writes out on a sheet of paper a list of all vessels and dishes, which he sends inside, with the seal of the Mír Bakáwal, that none of the dishes may be changed. The dishes are carried by the Bakáwals, the cooks, and the other servants, and macebearers precede and follow, to prevent people from approaching them. The servants of the pantry send at the same time, in bags containing the seal of the Bakáwal, various kinds of bread, saucers of curds piled up, and small stands containing plates of pickles, fresh ginger, limes, and various greens. The servants of the palace again taste the food, spread the table cloth on the ground, and arrange the dishes; and when after some time his Majesty commences to dine, the table servants sit opposite him in attendance: first, the share of the derwishes is put apart, when his Majesty commences with milk or curds. After he has dined, he prostrates himself in prayer. The Mír Bakáwal is always in attendance. The dishes are taken away according to the above list. Some victuals are also kept half ready, should they be called for.

The copper utensils are tinned twice a month; those of the princes, &c., once; whatever is broken is given to the braziers, who make new ones.

There are many dishes, but the description is difficult. I shall give some particulars. Cooked victuals may be arranged under three heads, first, such in which no meat is used, called now-a-days çúfiyánah; secondly, such in which meat and rice, &c., are used; thirdly, meats with spices. I shall give ten recipes of each kind.

First, 1. Zard birinj. 10 s. of rice; 5 s. of sugarcandy; 3½ s. of g'hí; raisins, almonds, and pistachios, ½ s. of each; ¼ s. of salt; 1/8; s. of fresh ginger; 1½ dáms saffron, 2½ misqáls of cinnamon. This will make four ordinary dishes. Some make this dish with fewer spices, and even without any: and instead of without meat and sweets, they prepare it also with meat and salt. 2. Khushkah. 10 s. rice; ½ s. salt; but it is made in different ways. This will likewise give four dishes. One maund of Déwzírah paddy yields 25 s. of rice, of which 17 sérs make a full pot; jinjin rice yields 22 sérs. 3. K'hichri. Rice, split dal, and g'hí 5 s. of each; 1/3 s. salt: this gives seven dishes. 4. Shírbirinj. 10 s., milk; 1 s. rice; 1 s. sugarcandy; 1 d. salt: this gives five full dishes. 5. T'húlí. 10 s. of wheat ground, of which one-third will be lost; half of that quantity of g'hí; 10 misqáls of pepper; 4 m. cinnamon; 3½ m. cloves and cardamums; 1/3 s. salt; some add milk and sweetmeats: this gives four dishes. 6. Chik'hí. 10 s. of wheat-flour, made into a paste, and washed till it is reduced to 2 s. fine paste. This is mixed with spices, and dressed with various kinds of meat. 1 s. g'hí; 1 s. onions; saffron, cardamums, and cloves, ½ d. of each; cinnamon, round pepper, and coriander seed, 1 d. of each; fresh ginger, salt 3 d. of each: this gives two dishes; some add lime juice. 7. Bádinján. 10 s. rice; 1½ s. g'hí; 3¾ s. onions; ¼ s. ginger and lime juice; pepper and coriander seed, 5 m. of each; cloves, cardamums, and assafœtida, each ½ m. This gives six dishes. 8. Pahit. For ten sérs of dál, or vetches, or gram, or skinned lentils, &c., take 2½ s. g'hí; ½ s. of salt and fresh ginger; 2 m. cuminseed; 1½ m. assafœtida: this yields fifteen dishes. It is mostly eaten with Khushkah. 9. Ság. It is made of spinach, and other greens, and is one of the most pleasant dishes. 10 s. spinach, fennel, &c., 1½ s. g'hí; 1 s. onions; ½ s. fresh ginger; 5½ m. of pepper; ½ m. of cardamums and cloves: this gives six dishes. 10. Halwá. Flour, sugarcandy, g'hí, 10 s. of each, which will give fifteen dishes; it is eaten in various ways.

There are also various kinds of sugared fruits, and drinks, which I cannot here describe.

Secondly, 1. Qabúlí. 10 s. rice; 7 s. meat; 3½ s. g'hí; 1 s. gram skinned; 2 s. onions; ½ s. salt; ¼ s. fresh ginger; cinnamon, round pepper, cuminseed, of each 1 d.; cardamums and cloves, ½ d. of each; some add almonds and raisins: this gives five dishes. 2. Duzdbiryán. 10 s. rice, 3½ s. g'hí; 10 s. meat; ½ s. salt: this gives five dishes. 3. Qímah Paláo. Rice and meat as in the preceding; 4 s. g'hí; 1 s. peeled gram; 2 s. onions; ½ s. salt; ¼ s. fresh ginger, and pepper; cuminseed, cardamums and cloves, 1 d. of each: this gives five dishes. 4. Shullah. 10 s. meat, 3½ s. rice; 2 s. g'hí; 1 s. gram: 2 s. onions; ½ s. salt, ¼ s. fresh ginger; 2 d. garlic, and round pepper, cinnamon, cardamums, cloves, 1 d., of each: this gives six dishes. 5. Bughrá. 10 s. meat; 3 s. flour; 1½ s. g'hí, 1 s. gram; 1½ s. vinegar; 1 s. sugarcandy; onions, carrots, beets, turnips, spinach, fennel, ginger, ¼ s. of each; saffron, cloves, cardamums, cuminseed, 1 d. of each; 2 d. cinnamon; 8 m. round pepper: this gives twelve dishes. 6. Qímah Shúrbá. 10 s. meat; 1 s. rice; 1 s. g'hí; ½ s. gram, and the rest as in the Shullah: this gives ten full dishes. 7. Harísah. 10 s. meat; 5 s. crushed wheat; 2 s. g'hí; ½ s. salt; 2 d. cinnamon: this gives five dishes. 8. Kashk. 10 s. meat; 5 s. crushed wheat; 3 s. g'hí; 1 s. gram; ¼ s. salt; 1½ s. onions; ½ s. ginger; 1 d. cinnamon; saffron, cloves, cardamums, cuminseed, 2 m. of each: this gives five dishes. 9. Halím. The meat, wheat, gram, spices, and saffron, as in the preceding; 1 s. g'hí; turnips, carrots, spinach, fennel, ¼ s. of each: this gives ten dishes. 10. Quṭáb, which the people of Hindústán call sanbúsah. This is made several ways. 10 s. meat; 4 s. flour; 2 s. g'hí; 1 s. onions; ¼ s. fresh ginger; ½ s. salt; 2 d. pepper and coriander seed; cardamum, cuminseed, cloves, 1 d. of each; ¼ s. of summáq. This can be cooked in twenty different ways, and gives four full dishes.

Thirdly, 1. Biryán. For a whole Dashmandí sheep, take 2 s. salt; 1 s. g'hí; 2 m. saffron, cloves, pepper, cuminseed: it is made in various ways. 2. Yakhní. For 10 s. meat, take 1 s. onions, and ½ s. salt. 8. Yulmah. A sheep is scalded in water till all the hair comes off; it is then prepared like yakhní, or any other way; but a lamb, or a kid, is more preferable. 4. Kabáb is of various kinds. 10 s. meat; ½ s. g'hí; salt, fresh ginger, onions, ¼ s. of each; cuminseed, coriander seed, pepper, cardamums cloves, 1½ d. of each. 5. Musamman. They take all the bones out of a fowl through the neck, the fowl remaining whole, ½ s. minced meat, ½ s. g'hí; 5 eggs; ¼ s. onions; 10 m. coriander; 10 m. fresh ginger; 5 m. salt; 3 m. round pepper; ½ m. saffron; it is prepared as the preceding. 6. Dupiyázah. 10 s. meat, middling fat; 2 s. g'hí; 2 s. onions; ¼ s. salt; 1/8; s. fresh pepper; cuminseed, coriander seed, cardamums, cloves, 1 d. of each; 2 d. pepper: this will give five dishes. 7. Mutanjanah sheep. 10 s. meat, middling fat; 2 s. g'hí; ½ s. gram; ¼ s. ginger; 1 d. cuminseed; round pepper, cloves, cardamums, coriander seed 2 d. of each; this will give seven dishes full. It is also made of fowl and fish. 8. Dampukht. 10 s. meat; 2 s. g'hí; 1 s. onions; 11 m. fresh ginger; 10 m. pepper; 2 d. cloves; 2 d. cardamums. 9. Qalyah. 10 s. meat; 2 s. g'hí; 1 s. onions; 2 d. pepper; cloves, cardamums, 1 d. each; 1/8; s. salt: this will give eight dishes. In preparing qalyah, the meat is minced, and the gravy rather thick, in opposition to the mutanjanah. Here in Hindustan they prepare it in various ways. 10. Malghúbah 10 s. meat; 10 s. curds; 1 s. g'hí; 1 s. onions, ¼ s. ginger; 5 d. cloves: this will give ten dishes.

This belongs, properly speaking, to the preceding chapter. Bread is made in the pantry. There is a large kind, baked in an oven, made of 10 s. flour; 5 s. milk; 1½ s. g'hí; ¼ s. salt. They make also smaller ones. The thin kind is baked on an iron plate. One sér will give fifteen, or even more. There are various ways of making it: one kind is called chapátí, which is sometimes made of khushkah; it tastes very well, when served hot. For the bread used at court, one man of wheat is made to yield ½ m. of fine flour; 2 s. coarsely pounded flour; and the rest bran; if this degree of fineness be not required, the proportions are altered.

His Majesty cares very little for meat, and often expresses himself to that effect. It is indeed from ignorance and cruelty that, although various kinds of food are obtainable, men are bent upon injuring living creatures, and lending a ready hand in killing and eating them; none seems to have an eye for the beauty inherent in the prevention of cruelty, but makes himself a tomb for animals. If his Majesty had not the burden of the world on his shoulders, he would at once totally abstain from meat; and now, it is his intention to quit it by degrees, conforming, however, a little to the spirit of the age. His Majesty abstained from meat for some time on Fridays, and then on Sundays; now on the first day of every solar month, on Sundays, on solar and lunar eclipses, on days between two fasts, on the Mondays of the month of Rajab,¹ on the feast-day of every solar month, during the whole month of Farwardín,² and during the month, in which his Majesty was born, viz, the month of A´bán. Again, when the number of fast days of the month of A´bán had become equal to the number of years his Majesty had lived, some days of the month of A´zar also were kept as fasts. At present the fast extends over the whole month. These fast days, however, from pious motives, are annually increased by at least five days. Should fasts fall together, they keep the longer one, and transfer the smaller by distributing its days over other months. Whenever long fasts are ended, the first dishes of meat come dressed from the apartments of Maryam Makání, next from the other bégums, the princes, and the principal nobility.

In this department nobles, ahadís, and other military, are employed. The pay of a foot soldier varies from 100 to 400 dáms.

The prices of course vary, as on marches, or during the rains, and for other reasons; but I shall give here the average prices for the information of future enquirers.

His Majesty looks upon fruits as one of the greatest gifts of the Creator, and pays much attention to them. The horticulturists of I´rán and Túrán have, therefore, settled here, and the cultivation of trees is in a flourishing state. Melons and grapes have become very plentiful and excellent; and water-melons, peaches, almonds, pistachios, pomegranates, &c., are everywhere to be found. Ever since the conquest of Kábul, Qandahár, and Kashmír, loads of fruits are imported; throughout the whole year the stores of the dealers are full, and the bázárs well supplied. Muskmelons come in season, in Hindústán, in the month of Farwardín (February—March), and are plenty in Urdíbihisht (March–April). They are delicious, tender, opening, sweet smelling, especially the kinds called náshpátí, bábáshaikhí, 'alíshérí, alchah, barg i nai, dúd i chirágh, &c. They continue in season for two months longer. In the beginning of Sharíwar, (August) they come from Kashmír, and before they are out of season, plenty are brought from Kábul; during the month of A´zar (November) they are imported by the caravans from Badakhshán, and continue to be had during Dai (December.) When they are in season in Zábulistán, good ones are also obtainable in the Panjáb; and in Bhakkar and its vicinity they are plentiful in season, except during the forty cold days of winter. Various kinds of grapes are here to be had from Khurdád (May) to Amurdád (July), whilst the markets are stocked with Kashmír grapes during Shahríwar. Eight sérs of grapes sell in Kashmír at one dám, and the cost of the transport is two rupees per man. The Kashmírians bring them on their backs in conical baskets, which look very curious. From Mihr (September) till Urdíbihisht grapes come from Kábul, together with cherries,¹ which his Majesty calls sháhálú, seedless pomegranates, apples, pears, quinces, guavas, peaches, apricots, girdálús, and álúchas, &c., many of which fruits grow also in Hindústán. From Samarqand even they bring melons, pears, and apples.

Whenever his Majesty wishes to take wine, opium, or kúknar (he calls the latter sabras), the servants in charge place before him stands of fruits; he eats a little, but most is distributed. The fruits are marked according to their degree of excellence: melons of the first quality are marked with a line drawn round the top; those of the second, with two lines; and so on.

In this department Mansabdárs, Ahadís, and other soldiers are employed; the pay of a foot soldier varies from 140 to 100 d.

The following tables contain particulars regarding the names, seasons, taste, and prices, of various fruits.