A'in-i Akbarī - The Ain-i-Akbarī, Volume 3

When a person is near unto death, they take him off his bed and lay him on the ground and shave his head, except in the case of a married woman, and wash the body. The Bráhmans read some prayers over him and alms are given. They then plaster the ground with cowdung and strew it over with green grass and lay him down at full length face upwards, with his head to the north and his feet to the south. If a river or tank be hard by, they place him up to his middle in water. When his dissolution is at hand they put into his mouth Ganges water, gold, ruby, diamond and pearl, and give away a cow in charity, and place upon his breast a leaf of the Tulaśí (Ocymum sanctum)¹ which they hold sacred, and draw the sectarial mark on his forehead with a particular kind of earth.²

When he expires, his youngest son,³ his brother, and his pupil and particular friends shave their heads and beards. Some defer this till the tenth day. The body dressed in its loin-cloth is wrapped in a sheet. The corpse of a married woman is dressed in the clothes she wore in life. The body is borne to the river side and a funeral pile of Palása-wood (Butea frondosa) is formed, upon which the body is laid. Prayers are read over ghee, which is put into the mouth and a few grains of gold are put into the eyes, nostrils, ears and other apertures. It is advisable that the son should set fire to the pile, otherwise the youngest brother of the deceased or, failing him, the eldest. All his wives deck themselves out and with cheerful countenances are burnt together with him in their embrace.⁴ A pile of lignum aloes and sandal-wood is fired for those who are wealthy. The wives are first advised not to give their bodies to the flames.

This mode of expressing grief among Hindu women applies to five classes:—(1). Those who expire on learning the death of their husbands and are burnt by their relations. (2). Those who out of affection for their husbands voluntarily consign themselves to the flames. (3). Who from fear of reproach surrender themselves to be burnt. (4). Who undergo this death regarding it as sanctioned by custom. (5). Who against their will are forced into the fire by their relatives.

If an ascetic (Sannyásin) dies or a child that has not yet teethed, the body is consigned to earth or launched into the river, and they do not burn those who disbelieve the Vedas or who are not bound by the rules of any of the four castes, nor a thief, nor a woman who has murdered her husband, nor an evil liver, nor a drunkard.

If the corpse cannot be found, an effigy of it is made with flour and leaves of the Butea frondosa and reeds covered with deer-skin, a cocoanut serving for the head. Over this prayers are said and it is then burnt.

A pregnant woman is not suffered to be burnt till after her delivery. If the man dies on a journey, his wives burn themselves with his garments or whatever else may belong to him. Some women whom their relations have dissuaded from burning themselves, or whom their good sense has convinced that burning is a fictitious grief, live afterwards in such unhappiness that death becomes preferable.

On the day on which the corpse is burnt, the relations and friends repair to the riverside and undo their hair, put on the sacred string across the other shoulder, and bathe themselves and place two handfuls of sesame-seed on the bank. They then collect in any open space and the friends of the deceased after a consolatory address to the mourners, accompany them home, the younger members of the family walking in front and the elders following. When they reach the door of the house, they chew a bit of Nímba leaf¹ (Hind. Ním, Melia Azadirachta) and then enter.

On the fourth day after the death of a Bráhman, the fifth after the death of a Kshatriya, the ninth and tenth after that of a Vaiśya and ´Súdra respectively, the person who had set fire to the funeral pile, proceeds to the place, performs some ceremonies, and collecting the ashes and remnants of bones together, throws them into the Ganges. If the river be at any distance, he places them in a vessel and buries them in the jungle, and, at a convenient time, exhumes them, puts them into a bag of deer-skin and conveys them to the stream, and concludes with certain ceremonies.

If the deceased is a Bráhman, all his relations for ten days sleep on the ground on a bed of grass and eat only what is sent to them, or what may be procured from the market (cooking nothing for themselves).

During ten days, the person who had fired the pile cooks some rice and milk and makes an offering of it as nourishment to the new body of the deceased. When the natural body dies, the soul takes a subtle frame which they call Preta.² Their belief is that while it is invested with this body, it cannot enter Paradise, and during the space of ten days this body continues in being. Subsequently, on the conclusion of certain ceremonies, it abandons this form and assumes another fitted for Paradise, and by the performance of manifold works, it finally receives its heavenly body. For other castes the time of detention (in the Preta) continues throughout their respective Sútaka¹ periods.

Some further ceremonies for Bráhmans and others take place on the eleventh and twelfth days also.

If a Bráhman dies out of his own house and information of his death is received within ten days of it, his family during the remaining period of those days, continue unclean. If the news arrives after the ten days, they are unclean for three days, but his son, at whatever time he hears of it, is unclean for ten days. If the death take place before investiture with the sacred string, or (if a child) before it has teethed, or of seven months, the impurity lasts one day, and is removed by bathing. If the deceased child be above this age up to two years old, the impurity lasts one day and night: from the time of cutting the hair² to that of investiture with the sacred thread, three days and nights. For the death of a daughter up to ten years of age, ablution suffices to purify. After that age till the time of proposal when she is betrothed before marriage, there is one day's impurity. After betrothal, the father's family and that of the suitor are unclean for three days.

The most efficacious kinds of death are five:—(1). Abstaining from food and drink till dissolution. (2). Covering the person with broken dried cowdung like a quilt or pall, and at the feet setting it on fire which creeps gradually from the toe-nails to the hair of the head, while the mind is fixed on divine contemplation till death. (3). Voluntarily plunging into snow. (4). At the extremity of Bengal where the Ganges divided into a thousand channels falls into the sea, the foe of his carnal desires wades into the sea, and confessing his sins and supplicating the Supreme Being, waits till the alligators come and devour him. (5). Cutting the throat at Illahabás at the confluence of the Ganges and the Jamuna.

Each of these modes is described with its appropriate details.

Forasmuch as the fenced city of tradition is unfrequented and the wastes of legend are stony places, knowledge that seeks after truth kept me from connection therewith, but the decree of fate unexpectedly drew me from silence into speech, and intent on freshening the interest of my narrative, I have been led into entering upon a multiplicity of details. A review of the general history of Hindustan has induced me to mention the comers into this vast country, and thus by recalling the memory of the great give a promise of currency to this important exposition.

They say that Adam after his fall from Paradise was thrown on the island of Ceylon, his consort on Juddah,¹ Azráíl in Sístán, the Serpent in Ispáhán, and the Peacock in Hindustan. Imaginative writers have embellished this fable with abundant details, but in Sanscrit works which treat of the events of myriads of past ages not a trace of this story is to be found.

Was the son of Siyámak and grandson of Kayúmars, and succeeded his great ancestor, ruling with justice and liberality. He is accounted the first to whom the name of sovereign virtually applies.² He came to India where he displayed the lustre of virtue. The work called ‘Eternal Wisdom’ is said to be the fruit of his mature experience.

Ḥáfiẓ,¹ in his Istiṭálah (Perillustris) says that when Mámún conquered Khurásán, the various chiefs sent presents to his court. The governor of Kábul sent a sage named Dúbán² on an embassy to Mamún and mentioned in his letter of homage that he was despatching to his court an offering of great price, than which nothing more valuable was known. The Caliph on receiving this information appointed his minister Faḍhl (Ibn-i-Sahl)³ to inquire what it referred to. The envoy replied that the allusion was to himself. They said to him, “How doth a distinction so great concern such as thee?” He answered, “In enlightened knowledge, judicious counsel, and right guidance,” and he spoke such parables of wisdom that all were amazed. It happened that at this time the Caliph designed to enter upon hostilities against his brother Muḥammad u'l Amín and all parties were endeavouring to dissuade him from it. He therefore consulted Dúbán, whose clear-sighted reasoning confirmed his resolution of marching into I'ráḳ and pressing on the war. The sage's advice was the means of resolving all political difficulties. Mámún treated him with great favour and commanded that a large sum of gold should be bestowed upon him. Dúbán excused himself saying, “It is not the practice of my sovereign to allow his envoy to receive anything, but there is a work called ‘Eternal Wisdom’⁴ composed by the farsighted intellect of Hushang and is said to to be in Madáin.⁵ On the conquest of that country, when the Caliph obtains the work let him graciously bestow it upon me.” His proposal was assented to. When Madáin was taken, he pointed out that in a certain quarter of the city, by a certain tree there was a large stone. This they were to lift and to dig down till they came to a subterranean chamber in which were a number of chests and a large quantity of valuables, none of which were to be touched as the time for removing them had not arrived. In a certain corner of the chamber a box of a certain shape would be found which they were to bring out, wherein would be discovered the work they sought. Sharp-eyed and experienced men were sent in search, and all happened exactly as he had described. Some portion of this work was translated into Arabic at the pressing insistance of Faḍhl, but as it was treasured by Dúbán, he did not suffer its translation to be completed.

Was the son of Noah. After the subsidence of the deluge he came to Hindustan. Annalists of other countries than this believe the Hindus to be descended from him.

Was the son of Ṭahmúraṣ Devband or the binder of the demons.¹ When by the Almighty decrees, he became a wanderer in the desert of misfortune, he happened to pass through Zábulistán. For sixteen years he dwelt in Kábul and secretly married the daughter of the prince Kaurnak. When the news was bruited abroad the prince bade him, one night, take his departure for Hindustan. The poet Asadí¹ says of this night:

Black as an Ethiop grew the night whose veil
O'er the moon's face its sable shadow flung,
Sad as the stifled sob whose scarce-heard wail
Dies on the ear from some despairing tongue.

For some time he employed himself in the profession of arms and when his secret was on the point of being discovered, he set out for China by way of Bengal, and on the road fell in with the emissaries of Zohák.

Was the son of Mardás, the Arabian. He passed into India several times as Asadí says:

Zohák the conqueror ere the year had gone,
To Kábul² swiftly passed from Babylon,
Resolved to launch o'er India's plains once more
The invading legions he had led before.

Was the son of Utrut.³ The Garshásp Námah narrates his invasion of India and the astonishing actions in which he engaged.

Was the son of Gushtásp,⁴ the son of Luhrásp. In obedience to the commands of his father he propagated the doctrines of Zoroaster, and his zeal caused the universal acceptation of that creed. He honoured the institutions which were the bequest of Faridún, applying them after his own direction. Firdausi thus alludes to him:

This mighty warrior of a line of kings
From clime to clime his rapid conquest wings;
O'er Greece and India his proud standards fly
To unknown seas where realms of darkness lie.

When the astrolgers announced to Garshásp the future sovereignty of Bahman and the overthrow of his own family, the devastation of Zábulístán, the slaughter of the descendants of Rustam, the disentombment of himself and his sons, and the burning of their bodies, he enjoined his sons to erect his tomb and that of his children at Kanauj in Hindustan. When Garshásp died, Narímán conveyed his remains thither, and on the death of Narímán his body was also taken to that country by Sám. On Sám's death, Zál transported his body to the same city whither, likewise, Faramarz carried Rustam when he died. When Bahman defeated Zál and Faramarz and the latter was killed in the engagement, Bahman overran Zábulistán and advanced to Kanauj desiring to view the royal mausoleum. A superstitious awe restrained him from entering it. Each of these four great men in anticipation of this event had left a great treasure within it. Among them was the world-displaying mirror of Kaikhusrau (Cyrus), which at his death he bequeathed to Rustam, and ninety maunds weight of diamonds belonging to Garshásp. Each of them also inscribed on a tablet a brief record of memorable deeds, praying that the conqueror would not desecrate the tomb. Bahman, struck by the sight of these splendid offerings and the prescient sagacity of the gift, fell into a profound melaucholy and withdrew from his previous resolve.

Faramarz, indeed, had twice entered this country, for Rustam after his combat with Barzú by whose mace his arm had been disabled, said to Kaikhusrau, “if my son Faramarz returns this night from India, he will deal with Barzú,” upon which followed his sudden arrival and the overthrow of the latter.

When Alexander had completed the conquest of I´rán and Turán and laid the foundations of Marv, Herát and Samarḳand, he entered India by Ghaznín and in the neighbourhood of the Panjáb gave battle to the Hindu prince, Porus, who had advanced from Kanauj to engage him, and by stratagem put him to rout. From thence he turned to the country of the Bráhmans. The chiefs of that region represented to him that if the conqueror sought riches and worldly goods they were destitute of these.

Wisdom and knowledge dwell with us, nor cease
To fill our bosoms with untroubled peace:
The earth a couch, the skies their covering lend,
So turn our thoughts to our appointed end.¹

“If thy design be the gathering of knowledge and the search for truth, let those who seek it come not in this guise.” Alexander, therefore, leaving his army, set out at the head of a few followers. A court was held to secure a just hearing and their peculiar views were discussed in audience. The king approved their speech and conduct and announced to them that whatever they desired should be granted. They replied that they had no other wish than that the king should live for ever. He answered that this wish was inconsistent with mortality. They rejoined: “If the instability of worldly things is so evident to your Majesty, why these fatigues in the tyrannous oppression of mankind?” Alexander for a space bowed his head in humiliation and imputed his actions to the decrees of fate.

According to some Christian¹ writers, when the standards of Alexander were raised on the shores of the Indian Ocean, accounts of the island of the Bráhmans reached him and he determined to take possession of it. They sent an envoy to him and made the following representation:—“Sovereign ruler of the world! The fame of thy conquests and thy successes has been constantly in our ears, but what can content a man to whom the possession of the world is insufficient? We enjoy no outward splendour, nor bodily vigour that thou shouldst deem us worthy to measure thy prowess in war. The worldly goods that we own are shared in common amongst us, and we are passing rich on what may satisfy our hunger. Our costliest robes are garments worn with age. Our women are not in bondage to adornment for the seduction of hearts, and account no beauty or charm of price, save that inherited from their mothers. Of our lowly habitations we ask but two things, a shelter in life and in death a grave. We have a king for considerations of dignity, not for the administration of justice or law. What use would punishment serve in a land where none is wicked and there is no thought of crime?” The sagacious monarch was struck by this affecting address and leaving them their freedom, abandoned his project.

The following letter was addressed by Alexander to Dídím, the head of the Bráhmans; for he had often heard that they did not live as other men. The novelty excited his wonder and made his life seem insupportable to him:¹ —“O Dídím, after learning thy message, I desire again to be informed of thy precepts and doctrines. If what thou hast represented bears the light of truth and is the result of experience, answer speedily, so that, putting this system to the proof, I also for justice sake and in search of truth, may follow they footsteps.” Dídím thus replied: “What I have stated results from profound knowledge. You have not chosen to believe in its truth and you reject what you do not incline to. Many blameable actions were favourably represented by you in our interview. Now, therefore, with full knowledge believe my words. Hirábud, the Bráhman, does not yield to the promptings of desire. Content with the measure of his needs, he opens not the door of greed.² Our food is not such as the four elements cannot easily supply. The earth gives us of its produce. In our meals intemperance has no place, for this reason we have no need of medicine or physician, and thus we enjoy perpetual well-being. We are not indebted to each other for assistance. We Bráhmans have equality in all things; what room then is there for indigence? In a land where the seeds of arrogance and vain glory grow not, universal poverty is consummate fortune. We have no governor, for our actions are not subjects for penal inquiry. We disapprove of a variety of creeds for they are produced through exceeding unrighteousness and manifold iniquities. Our only religion is the worship of conscience. From what it restrains us we withhold our hearts. We do not submit to the tyranny of the pursuit of wealth for it fosters greed and brings disappointment in its train. We disdain idleness and hold it in reproach. We are not rendered averse from the delights of wedlock by incapacity, for all things are in our power as we can also forego them. From the sun we receive warmth, from the dews moisture. Our thirst is quenched from the stream and we have no couch but the earth. Desire does not rob us of sleep, nor leave us a prey to care. We lord it not over our equals through pride; we seek service from none save of our own bodies, for we consider the body subservient to the spirit. We bake not stone in the fire for the raising of palaces, for we dwell in the hollows of the earth according to the measure of our needs, nor do we go in fear of the violence of the wind nor of storms of dust, for there we are safer than in houses of reed. We wear no costly robes; we cover our nakedness with leaves, or to speak truly, with modesty; our women are at no pains for their adornment, for who can add beauty to the creations of God? and after they are arrayed it profiteth them nothing. Our sexual commerce cometh not sinfully from carnal desire, but continuance of the race is kept in view. We are not prone to violence and we lay the dust of discord by the agency of right conduct, and though dependent on the guidance of destiny we do not resign ourselves to inactivity. Over our dead we erect no edifices in the guise of temples of worship. Give your commands to those who have flung wide for themselves the door of avarice and make their treasure of the things of this world. The ravages of pestilence do not reach us for we defile not the skirts of heaven with evil deeds. We are prepared to meet the vicissitudes of the seasons, and thus summer's heat and winter's cold distress us not, and therefore we live careless of the exigencies of those times. We do not deaden our minds with games and shows of elephants and horses and with dancing, and when a desire for worldly pageants seizes us, the sight of the record of your actions withholds us therefrom, and recalling your deeds which indeed more deserve a smile, we are moved to many tears. Worldly splendours make us rejoice in another spectacle, for amidst the varied beauties of the universe, the heavens glowing with the radiance of their myriad stars, the sea, coloured by its skies, that clasps in a fond embrace its sister earth, the revel of its fish that leap in play from its foam-tossing waves, fill our eyes with delight. Wandering through the woods with the fragrance of flowers and by running springs in the shade of abundant trees gladdens us in a hundred ways, while the sweet songs of birds render us unenvious of all the festal banquets of the rich. Such is the theatre we possess, to share in the enjoyment of which is difficult, to erase it from our minds, a crime. We plough not the seas in barks and vessels. Our hearts are not aflame with passion for the beauty of others, and we affect not the language of flattery or eloquence. The redundance of professed eulogists obtains no credit in this land, for the practice of this base crew which gives to the creature the praise due to God and overlays the purity of faith with error, darkens celestial light with reprehensible deeds. Of a truth you are the most unfortunate of mankind for your worship is sinful and your life its chastisement.”

The monarch thus replied: “If your language reflects the light of truth, I should infer that the Bráhmans alone are robed in the true characteristics of humanity and that this sect are to be regarded as incorporeal spirits. To hold as altogether unlawful the acts of the natural man is either to be God or to be envious of the Supreme Being. In short these principles in my opinion, proceed from madness not from the fulness of wisdom. O, Dídím, I have not fixed my abode in this hired dwelling, nor made of a passing rest-house a settled habitation, but prudently looking on myself as a sojourner, hasten, unencumbered with guilt, to my true country. This language is not the making of self a god, but like dark-minded bigots that are enemies to their own happiness, I do not affect to make the attributes of the Creator the instruments of my salvation. And whosoever under the guidance of a wakeful fortune, abandoning sinful actions, walks in the way of virtue is not a god, but by means of the grace of that Supreme Lord, rises above his fellow men.” The writer continued: “My royal master observes that you call yourselves fortunate in that you have chosen a retired spot of earth where the comings and goings of those without and the busy movement of the world are not heard, and that you consider this praiseworthy as proceeding from your attachment to your hearths and love of your native land. The lowliness and poverty that you cannot avoid is not worthy of commendation: on the contrary, the Almighty has inflicted this as a punishment for your evil deeds. True merit consists in living abstemiously amid abundant fortune, for ignorance and want cannot exhibit the lustre of virtue. The first cannot see what to avoid, the second has not the means by which it may possess. I, who with all the resources of pleasure and enjoyment at my command, have refrained from them altogether and have sternly chosen a life of toil, am more deserving of a glorious reward.”

Some say that after his victory over Porus, Alexander heard that at the extremity of India, reigned a king called Kayd,¹ possessed of many virtues, and who for three hundred years had passed a blameless life. To him he despatched a letter that appealed to his hopes and fears. The king read the letter and thus replied: “I have heard of the successes of your Majesty and would deem the honour of a personal visit the source of fortune, but stricken in years, strength fails me. If my excuse is accepted, I will send as an offering four matchless treasures which are the pride of my life; an accomplished and virtuous maiden of uncomparable beauty; a sage unequalled in penetrating the secrets of the heart; a physician, in healing as the Messiah; a cup which though drunk from is inexhaustible. Alexander accepted the gifts and despatched Balínás with some experienced associates to bring them. The envoy returned to the court with these treasures of price together with forty elephants of which three were white, and numerous other presents. Alexander first essayed to test the Hindu sage. He sent him a bowl full of clarified butter. The sage thrust a few needles therein and sent it back. Alexander fused the needles and forming the metal into a ball returned it to him. The sage fashioning of this a mirror, again sent it back. Alexander placed it in a basin full of water and despatched it once more. The sage made of the mirror a drinking cup and set it upon the water of the basin. The monarch filled it with earth and returned it. At the sight of this, the sage fell into a profound melancholy and bitterly reproached himself and directed it to be carried back. Alexander was perplexed at this action. The next day he held an assembly of the learned to discuss these mysteries. The seer¹ was introduced and honourably received. He was of prepossessing exterior, with a noble brow, tall and powerfully made. Alexander on seeing him, thus reflected: “If to such a presence, he also unites a lofty wisdom, quickness of penetration and strength of will, he is unparalleled in his generation.” The sage read his hidden thoughts and making a circuit of his face with his forefinger rested it on the point of his nose. When asked for an explanation, he replied: “I understood your Majesty's reflections and by this gesture I meant to express that as the nose in the face is one, I also am unique in my time.” He was then required to expound the enigmas of the preceding day. He answered: “Your Majesty wished to signify the profundity of your wisdom, for as the bowl was full so the royal mind was filled with various knowledge and could contain no more. I, on the other hand, showed that as needles could find a place therein, so could other lore find room in your mind. By fashioning the ball your Majesty's intention was to discover that the clearness of your intellect was not like the bowl of butter in which other things could be contained, but resembled a ball of steel. The construction into a mirror signified that though steel be hard, it is capable of such polish as to reflect the face. By your sinking the mirror in water, I understood the shortness of life and the vast extent of knowledge. By fashioning it into a cup, I answered that what sank in water might with skill be made to float; thus also immense erudition may be acquired by severe application and the shortness of life be prolonged. The filling it with earth implied that the end of all things is death, and the return to earth. This was capable of no answer, and I was silent.” Alexander praised his sagacity and penetration and said: “The profit that I have reaped from India has been my meeting with thee.” He took him into his companionship and intimacy and parted from him only when he left India. The other three treasures also were subjected to a similar ordeal and their worth approved.

Some writers narrate the history of Porus after the particulars regarding Kayd, and state that he fled without fighting to distant parts and that his dominions were conferred upon another.

His presumption led him to claim the authority of a prophet and he composed a work which he pretended had come down from heaven, affirming also that he was the Paraclete announced by the Messiah; Shápúr, the son of Ardshír Bábagán favoured him. It was not long before his imposture was discovered and he was condemned to death, but he contrived to escape by flight. For a time he remained in Kashmír and from thence entered India where his doctrines received some acceptance. From thence he went to Turkistán and China and resided chiefly in the eastern parts till his wanderings brought him to a mountain where he discovered a cave which was untrodden by human foot, and to this he brought provisions sufficient for a year. One day, in the course of conversation, he said to his followers: “I have been summoned to heaven where I shall remain for a twelve-month: be not troubled at my absence nor withdraw from the worship of God and the practice of virtue. At the end of the year, go, some of you, to a certain mountain and wait in expectation.” Previous to his concealment he had learnt the art of painting in which he had attained incomparable skill. After he had ascended the mountain, he painted some wonderful figures which are celebrated by the name of Artang, or Arzhang,¹ and at the time that he had said, he came forth with the book in his hand. Those who saw it were filled with amazement. He exclaimed: “This is not the work of mortals that ye should wonder; I brought it from heaven and it is painted by the angels.” This he brought forward as a witness of his prophetic mission and deceived the ignorant and credulous. He attempted to impose upon Bahrám Gor, the son of Hormuzd the son of Ardshír, but he failed in his purpose, and in this criminal venture staked and lost his life.

Was the son of Yezdejird, the Wicked, of the Sassanian dynasty. Since the lust of the world fills the brain with extraordinary fancies in the first flush of his success he was seized with the frenzy of adventurous travel, and leaving one of the Magi of the line of Bahman, son of lsfandyár, as governor in his stead, he set out for India in a disguise which defied recognition. In those parts there was a raging elephant which put the whole country in terror. Although the bravest warriors had attempted to kill it, they lost but their own lives. Bahrám hearing of this event arrived at the place and by sheer strength of arm destroyed it. The prince of that region received him at his Court with much favour.¹ In his vicinity a powerful enemy had arrived to dispute his sovereignty, and he saw no resource but in the payment of tribute. Bahrám dissuaded him from this course, and opposed the invader in person and defeated him. The prince gave him his daughter in marriage, but when he discovered his illustrious descent, he became apprehensive and dismissed him loaded with presents back to his own country. It is said that Bahrám took with him 12,000 musicians; and many other wonderful adventures are related of him.

Núshírwán spent his days in the assiduous pursuit of knowledge, solicitous to discover erudite minds and interesting literary works. He opportunely fell in with a learned Bráhman with whom he frequently held familiar discussions. Enquiry was made regarding the truth of a universal report to the effect that in a certain mountainous part of India certain herbs grew which could restore the dead to life. The Brahmán replied: “The report has a semblance of fact, inasmuch as by the mountain is meant a wise man, by the herbs knowledge, and by the dead an ignorant person,” and he proceeded to expound the various lore of the country and the advantages thereof. In this he included the story of Kalílah and Damnah, and briefly recounted its merits and said, “the rulers of Hindustan keep this manual of state-craft studiously concealed and do not show it to every one.” The desire to obtain this work rendered the monarch impatient. He commanded his ministers saying: “I need a judicious and discerning person who to a strong bodily constitution unites firmness of purpose and various learning, besides a knowledge of foreign tongues.” Burzúyah was found to possess these important qualifications and successfully proved his capacity. A large sum of money was entrusted to him in order that he might set out in the guise of a merchant to that country, and through inquiries of experts attain the object of his mission, and return with it and other scientific treatises to the court. He came to India, and setting up as a trader passed himself off as an unlearned person desirous of acquiring knowledge. In this way he secured an intimacy with the ministers of the Indian princes, and through their instrumentality returned to the imperial court with that volume of wise lore, together with other valuable objects. The king received him with favour and fulfilled his desires.¹

Was cousin to the celebrated Hajjáj. He received his commission in the reign of the Caliph Abdu'l Malik, as has been already noticed.¹

Was the father of Sulṭán Maḥmúd of Ghazní. After Bahrám Gor none of the (Persian) kings entered India. Sabuktigín invaded it at the head of an army in the year A.H. 367 (A.D. 977), and after several engagements returned to Ghazníṅn.

Led twelve descents on India. The first was in A.H. 390² (A.D. 999-1000), and the last in A.H. 418 (A.D. 1027). Fanatical bigots representing India as a country of unbelievers at war with Islám incited his unsuspecting nature to the wreck of honour and the shedding of blood and the plunder of the virtuous.

Was son of Maḥmúd: He crossed into India in A. H. 426 (A. D. 1034-35).³

Although a considerable territory in Hindustan was in the possession of the descendants of Sulṭan Maḥmúd, none of the undermentioned princes entered India:—Makḥul-b-Sulṭán Maḥmúd; Maudúd-b-Masạúd; Masaúd-b-Maudúd; Sulṭán Alí-b-Masạúd-b-Maḥmúd; Sulṭán Abdu'r Rashíd-b-Maḥmúd; Farrukhzád-b-Masạúd; but when in course of time the crown devolved upon Ibráhím-b-Masạúd-b-Sulṭán Maḥmúd he made peace with the Saljúḳís and turning his thoughts to India he entered it on several occasions.

Also crossed into India at intervals and was successful.

The Ḥadíḳat (u'l Ḥaḳáiḳ) of the (poet) Ḥakím Sanáí¹ and the Kalíla Damna of (Abu'l Mạálí) Naṣru'llah Mustaufí were dedicated to him. This prince also visited India.

On the death of his father, he succeeded to the throne. It was about this time that Aláu'ddín Ḥusayn Ghorí, known as Jahánsoz or Burner of the World, sacked Ghazníṅn and entered India. Sulṭán Ghiyáṣu'ddín Sám and Sulṭán Shihábu'ddín, nephews of Aláu'ddín Ḥusayn, on whom the latter had bestowed Ghazníṅn and the adjacent provinces, contrived to secure the person of Khusrau Sháh from India and put him in prison where he ended his days, and thus the dynasty of the descendants of Maḥmúd passed away. Some authorities, however, assert that Khusrau Sháh held his court at the capital of Lahore, and that on his death, he was succeeded by his son Khusrau Malik who was taken by the Ghorís and placed in confinement,² in which he continued till he died.

He is also called Sulṭán Shihábu'ddín. After the capture of Ghazníṅn Aláu'ddín Ḥusayn Ghorí imprisoned Ghiyáṣu'ddín and Shihábu'ddín.

On his death, his son Sayfu'ddín came to the throne and by releasing them attached them to his person.

On the death of Sayfu'ddín in his campaign in I'ráḳ¹ he was succeeded by Ghiyáṣu'ddín. During his reign Shihábu'ddín led several expeditions into India, and the (defeat and) death of Prithví Rájá and the conquest of Hindustan occurring about this time, he left his slave Ḳutbu'ddín (Eibak) at Delhi as his representative. On the death of Ghiyáṣu'ddín, the throne was occupied by Shihábu'ddín who favoured the Turkish slaves. Among these was Táju'ddín Eldóz,² upon whom he bestowed the governments of Mekrán and Súrán which are dependencies of India.

Was one of the slaves of Sulṭán Mu'izzu'ddín,³ and rose to eminence through his own valour and resolution. The Sulṭán entrusted to him the viceroyalty of Delhi. He made many successful compaigns in India and performed many acts of personal prowess.

Was also a slave of Mu'izzu'ddín. On the death of his master he made himself master of U´chh, Multán and the Sind country.

Some account him to have been a slave of Shahábu'ddín and others of Ḳuṭbu'ddín Aibak.⁵ After the death of the latter, his son A´rám Sháh being defeated, the sovereignty devolved upon Altmish.

Was one of the slaves of Shamsu'ddín and brought from Túrán to India. For a time he held the title of Ulugh Khán⁶ and subsequently obtained the sovereign power.

According to some authorities, towards the close of his life having settled his differences with his brothers, he invaded India and put many to death. A stone idol weighing ten thousand maunds fell into his possession. The Hindus sent him a message offering to ransom it at its weight in pearls. This offer he refused.

When Sulṭán Muḥammad Khwárazm Sháh took refuge from the troops of the great Ḳáán, Changíz Khán, in the island of A´baskún,³ he was accompanied by his son Jalálu'ddín who, on his father's death, set out for Khurásán and thence hastened to Ghaznah, and was engaged in several important actions against the Ḳáán's forces in which he was victorious. The great Ḳáán himself marched in person to remedy the disaster. Jalálu'ddín unable to cope with him retired towards Hindustan. The great conqueror pursued him to the banks of the Indus and both armies were again engaged. Yielding at last to superior force he mounted his horse and seizing his royal umbrella in his hand plunged into the stream and crossing its raging waters landed at a point opposite the enemy. He there took off his saddle and flung his clothes in the sun, and planting the umbrella in the ground sat down under its shade. The Ḳáán beheld this feat with astonishment and was loud in his admiration. For a night and day he remained there and was joined by fifty of his men, and cutting some clubs, they made a night attack on a party of Indians and carried off a considerable booty,¹ and in a short time ten thousand horsemen were assembled under his command. Sulṭán Shamsu'ddín Altmish, Emperor of Hindustan, was under the gravest apprehension, and could not venture to engage him.² Jalálu'ddín continued for nearly two years in India carrying on a desultory warfare, and made himself master of several fertile districts, but subsequently returned by way of Kach and Mekrán to the conquest of I'ráḳ.

Some authorities assert that when the number of his followers amounted to a thousand, he marched towards Delhi, and sent a messenger to Sulṭán Shamsu'ddín Altmish desiring a post in his service. The latter prudently declined, and after the manner of astute intriguers he poisoned his messenger, and sending him a number of valuable presents sped him towards Irán.³

Was one of the principal generals of Changíz Khán. After the incidents in connection with Sulṭán Jalalu'ddín, he invaded India and took Multán. Náṣiru'ddín Ḳabáchah who was governor of that province, opened the gates of his treasury and won over the soldiery, and by his address and valour remedied the disaster.

Was one of the military adventurers of Khwárzam and invaded Sind. Náṣiru'ddín Ḳabáchah advanced to give him battle and displayed great heroism in the encounter in which the Khalají lost his life.

Was one of the generals of Changíz Khán, and in the reign of Mu'izzu'ddín Bahrám Sháh (A. D. 1239–42) son of Sulṭán Shamsu'ddín (Altmish), he was infatuated with the design of invading Hindustan. Malik Ḳaráḳash at that time held the government of Lahore in behalf of the Sulṭán and from want of spirit and the disunion among his followers, he set out one night for Delhi, and the town was sacked.¹

Was one of the generals of Hulágú Khán. He advanced as far as U´chh in the reign of Sulṭán Aláu'ddín Masạúd Sháh (A. D. 1242–46), who marched to give him battle. On arriving at the banks of the Biáh, the invader retreated to Khurásán. A year previous to the invasion of Mankúyah, a part of the army of Changíz Khán entered Bengal³ and hostilities took place with Tughán Khán, who was at that time governor on the part of Aláu'ddín Masạúd Sháh, but terms of peace were agreed upon. In the reign of Sulṭán Náṣiru'ddín Maḥmúd Sháh (A. D. 1245–65), the Mughal troops again invaded the Panjáb and retired.

Invaded Sind with a large army. Sulṭán Náṣiru'ddín (A. D. 1246–66), sent Ulugh Khán¹ to oppose him and followed in person, and the invader retreated.

In the reign of Hulágu Khán marched towards India with a large force and a hard-fought engagement took place with Ḳadar Khán, son of Sulṭán Ghiáṣu'ddín Balban between Láhor and Dípálpúr in which this nursling of fortune drank his last draught.² He was brave, studious, and a friend to learning, and twice despatched gifts of valuable presents to Muṣliḥu'ddín Shaykh Saạdí at Shíráz, with an invitation to his court. Although the poet was unable to accept it, he sent him a work written with his own hand. In this action Mír Khusrau was taken prisoner and has himself briefly alluded to this event in his poem. After this no foreign invasion took place for seven years.

Was the grandson of Hulágu Khán who advanced upon India by way of Kábul, A. H. 691 (A. D. 1292,) Sulṭán Jalálu'ddín (Fíroz Khilji, A. D. 1288–95), marched to stem the disaster and a stubborn engagement was fought at Bagrám,³ after which the invader retreated on terms of peace. Algú,⁴ a grandson of Changíz Khán, with many other chiefs entered the service of the Sulṭán, who gave him his daughter in marriage. In the beginning of the reign⁵ of Sulṭán Aláu'ddín, some of the Túrán troops crossed the Indus, and he despatched (Almás Beg) Ulugh Khán and Ẓafar Khán with a large force to oppose them. The Mughals were defeated, some were taken prisoners, but the greater number were slain.

Was of the Mughal race and about this time invaded Sind. The Sulṭán (Aláu'ddín) appointed Ẓafar Khán (to oppose him), who in a short time obtained a victory and taking him prisoner, sent him to the royal court.¹

In the same year crossed the Indus with a large army and advanced by direct marches on Delhi, and as his design was otherwise he did not open his hand to plunder. Sulṭán Aláu'ddín resolved to give him battle and (Ẓafar Khán) defeated him, pursuing him for sixteen kos. The chiefs through jealousy did not join in the pursuit and the enemy returning surrounded him. Though (Ẓafar Khán) was offered the strongest assurances of advancement, he refused their terms and died fighting to the last.

At the time when Sulṭán Aláu'ddín was investing Chitor, thinking the opportunity favourable, invaded India with a large army. The Sulṭán after the capture of that fortress, A. H. 703 (A. D. 1303), hastened to oppose him and Targhí possessed himself of the fords of the river Jumna, within five kos of Delhi. The Sulṭán entrenched himself in the vicinity outside the city walls. After some hostilities Targhí returned unsuccessful to his own country.

Were descendants of Changíz Khán. At the head of thirty thousand horse, skirting the (Sewálik) mountains, he penetrated to Amroha, A. H. 704 (A. D. 1304). Sulṭán Aláu'ddín sent an army to oppose them. After severe fighting, both of these chiefs were taken prisoners and the rest as an example were trodden to death by elephants.

In the following year (A. H. 705) reached India with a considerable force, but was taken prisoner. The year after, thirty thousand Mughals made an incursion through the Sewaliks. The Sulṭán sent a large army which seized the fords and skilfully obstructed them. In the retreat many of the Mughals perished and some were taken prisoners.

In the reign of Aláu'ddín invaded the country at the head of an army of Mughals, but was killed in action. After this no further hostile designs were entertained by them.

Sulṭán Muḥammad Khudabandah sent the author of the Jámi'ut Tawáríkh-i Rashídí on an embassy to Sulṭán Ḳuṭbu'ddín, son of Sulṭán Aláu'ddín, and a close friendly alliance was entered into between them.

When the sovereignty of Delhi devolved upon Sulṭán Maḥmúd the grandson of Sulṭán Fíroz, and the office of chief minister upon Mallú Khán, all systematic administration and knowledge of affairs ceased to exist and the government fell into discredit. At this period the sublime Standards approached as has already been briefly described. Notwithstanding the conquest of so populous a kingdom, the booty obtained was not important, and the invaders impelled by love of their native land, retired from the country.

His history has been fully detailed in the first volume.¹

When the jewel of sovereignty beamed with the radiance of a coming possession, Humáyún, after some unsuccessful attempts, invaded India. (A. D. 1555), as before narrated.

Infinite praise to the Almighty that through the justice of the emperor and the harmonious order of his administration, Hindustan has become a gathering of the virtuous from all parts of the universe, each of whom in manifold ways has attained to the desire of his heart.

But this long narrative will never end, for there are many of those freed from the trammels of the world and of others fettered therein, who have visited this country, such as Husayn Manṣúr, Abú Maạshar of Balkh, Khwájah Mu'ínu'ddín Sijizí, Khwájah Ḳuṭbu'ddín U´shí, Shaykh I'ráḳí, Shaykh Saạdí, Mír Ḥusayní, Mír Sayyid Ali Hamadání and others.²

Inasmuch as the writer is a suppliant before the servants of God and the love of them is innate in his heart, he concludes this work with a notice of such among them as have been either born or have their last resting places in this country. He trusts that this course will be pleasing to many minds and a source to them of eternal bliss. For himself he will inhale fragrance from the garden of truth and receive the meed of his abundant toil.

Awliyá is the (Arabic) plural of walí which is interpreted as signifying ‘nearness,’ by which is intended spiritual proximity. Some authorities ascribe to wiláyat with a kasra of the wao, the meaning of diversity of appearance, and to waláyat with a faṭḥa, that of authority. Others assert that the idea of a lover attaches to the first, and the state of the beloved to the second. The possessor of the former quality is called walí, that of the latter, wálí. Another opinion is that the word (waláyat) with the faṭḥa, betokens the proximity (to God) of the prophets, and with a kasra (wiláyat), of the saiuts.¹ In ancient works many significations have been given, the outcome of which is that it means one who has attained to the knowledge of the Supreme Being; a lofty soul will indeed love God alone. To me the wonder is, what connection can exist between a dust-mote of creation and the self-existing sun, and what bond lies between the finite and infinity? A walí, in my opinion, is one who acquires four great virtues and avoids eight reprehensible actions. He should always wage a victorious war by circumspect conduct against the myriad disorders of the spirit, and never for an instant relax his attention from its deceits. This lofty station is attainable by the grace of God and the guidance of fortune, and is sometimes to be reached through the spiritual powers of a mediator, and sometimes without it. The latter state they call Uwaysí with reference to the example of Uways Ḳaraní;² and some say

The former, who possess the power of revealing things not manifest to the senses, are classed under twelve orders, of which two are regarded as unorthodox:—

(1). Muḥásibí. (2). Ḳaṣṣár. (3). Ṭayfúrí. (4). Junaydí. (5). Núrí. (6). Sahlí. (7). Ḥakímí. (8). Kharrází. (9). Khafífí. (10). Sayyárí. (11). Ḥulúlí. (12). Ḥallájí.

I. The source of grace to the FIRST-NAMED was Abú Abdu'llah Ḥáritḥ¹ b-Asad Muḥásibí, a native of Baṣrah. He mastered all secular and speculative science and was thoroughly acquainted with the inequalities of the spiritual road. He was the teacher of his time and the author of many works. He died at Baghdad in A. H. 243 (A. D. 857). As he ever judiciously wielded the moral controlling authority of his age, he received this name of Muḥásib.

The SECOND follow Ḥamdún, the son of Aḥmad-b-Ammár, Ḳaṣṣár or the Fuller, his patronymic being Abú Ṣáliḥ. He studied under Tḥaurí² and acquired many spiritual benefits from Salm-b-Ḥusayn Bárúsí, Abú Turáb Nakshabí and Alí Naṣrábádí, and was a disciple of Abú Ḥafṣ. He attained a high degree of perfection though the world gave loose to the tongue of slander against him. He died at Níshapúr in A. H. 271 (A. D. 884).

The THIRD revere Ṭayfúr-b-I'sa Bisṭámí whose patronymic is Báyazíd. One of his great ancestors was a Magian called Sharoshán. His earliest education was received from the elders of Bisṭám under whom he studied science and reached the rank of a mujtahid.¹ Next, having mastered the ordinary subjects of knowledge, he attained to the highest grade of intellectual distinction. He ranked equal to Aḥmad Khaẓrawaih, Abú Ḥafṣ, and Yaḥya-b-Mạáẓ, and was contemporary with Shaḳíḳ of Balkh. He died in A. H. 261 (A. D. 874-75), or according to another account, A. H. 234 (A. D. 848).

The FOURTH are adherents of Junayd Baghdádí whose patronymic is Abu'l Ḳásim and who is styled Ḳawárírí, the flask maker, and Zajjáj, the glass manufacturer, and Khazzáz, the raw-silk merchant. His father sold glass and he himself traded in silk. His ancestors were from Naháwand, but he was born and bred in Baghdad. He studied, for a time, under Saríy Saḳaṭiy, Ḥáritḥ al Muḥásibí and Muḥammad Ḳaṣṣáb, and his connection is authoritatively traced with Kharráz,² Ruyam, Núrí, Shiblí and many others among the chosen servants of God. Shaykh Abú Jaạfar-b-Ḥaddád says that if wisdom could be incarnate, it would assume the form of Junayd. He died in A. H. 297-98 or 99 (A. D. 909-10-11).

The FIFTH are called after Abishkhwur Núri Serábdil. His name was Aḥmad-b-Muḥammad or according to some, Muḥammad-b-Muḥammad. He was commonly known as Ibn-i-Baghawí.³ His father was from Khurásán, but his own birth and origin are of Baghdad, and he is among those distinguished for wisdom and virtue. He was in friendly intercourse with Saríy Saḳaṭiy,⁴ Muḥammad Ḳaṣṣáb, and Aḥmad Abú'l Ḥawárí, and contemporary with Zu'n Nún⁵ of Egypt. He is considered equal in authority with Junayd, but somewhat more impulsive. He died in A. H. 295 (A. D. 907-8) or 286 (A. D. 899).

The SIXTH originate from Sahl-b-Abdu'llah Tustarí, who was a disciple of Zu'n Nún of Egypt, and one of the most eminent of those who attained to this sublime vocation. He was among the associates of Junayd and died in the month of Muḥarram, A. H. 283 (A. D. 896), at the age of eighty-six.

The SEVENTH revert to Abú Abdu'llah Muḥammad-b-Ali Ḥakím-i-Tirmiḍi. He was in intercourse with Abú Turáb Nakshabí, Aḥmad Khazrawaih and Ibn-i-Jalá, and was pre-eminent in all secular and speculative knowledge. He is reported to be a voluminous author and to have had the gift of miracles.

The EIGHTH look to Abú Sạíd Kharráz, or the Cobbler. His name was Aḥmad-b-I´sa and he was a native of Baghdad. Through his inclination towards the Súfís he went to Egypt and resided in devout attendance by the temple of Mecca. His profession was that of a shoemaker and he was the disciple of Muḥammad-b-Manṣúr Ṭúsi. He associated with Zu'n Nún of Egypt, Saríy Saḳaṭíy, Abú Úbayd Baṣrí, and Bishr Al Ḥáfí, and derived much spiritual instruction from them. He is the author of four hundred works. Those uninstructed in his doctrine believed him to be an infidel. He died in A. H. 286 (A. D. 899). Khwájah Abdu'llah Anṣárí says that he knew none of the great doctors more profoundly versed in the mysteries of the Divine Unity.

The NINTH invoke Abú Abdu'llah Muḥammad-b-Khafíf. His father was from Shíráz and he himself was the disciple of Shaykh Abú Ṭálib. He was master of secular and spiritual science and had seen Khazraj al Baghdádí and Ruyam, and was a contemporary of (Abú Bakr) Kattání, Yusuf-b-Huṣayn Rází, Abú Husayn Málikí, Abú Husayn al Muzayyan,¹ Abú Ḥusayn Darráj and many others of note. He wrote many works and died in the year A. H. 331 (A. D. 942-43).

The TENTH trace back to Abu'l Abbás Sayyárí. His name was Ḳásim and he was the son of the daughter of Aḥmad-b-Sayyár. He was a native of Marv and the disciple of Abú Bakr Wásiṭí. He pursued the ordinary curriculum of worldly studies as well as speculative science, and attained to an eminence in the practice of the spiritual life. He died in the year A. H. 342 (A. D. 953).

The ELEVENTH. The founder of this order was Ḥalmán¹ of Damascus.

The TWELFTH. This order had its origin in a Persian who was one of the disciples of Ḥusayn-b-Manṣúr Ḥalláj of Baghdad, not the celebrated Ḥusayn-b-Manṣúr (of Bayẓá).²

These last two have been the subject of much reviling.

In Hindustan fourteen orders are recounted which are styled the fourteen families and of these twelve only are described, omitting mention of those of Ṭayfúr and Junayd:—

(1). Ḥabíbí. (2). Ṭayfúrí. (3). Karkhí. (4). Saḳaṭíy. (5). Junaydi. (6). Kázrúní. (7). Ṭúsí. (8). Fírdausí. (9). Suhrawardí. 10. Zaydí. (11). I'yáẓí. (12). Adhami. (13). Hubayrí. (14). Chishtí.

They assert that Alí, the Prince of the Faithful, had four vicegerents, viz., Ḥasan, Ḥusayn, Kamíl, and Ḥasan Baṣrí. The source of these orders they believe to be Ḥasan Baṣrí who had two representatives, Ḥabíb-i-Ajamí, from whom the first nine obtain their spiritual fervour, and the other Abdu'l Wáhiḍ-b-Zayd, from whom the last five are filled with consolation. The mother of Ḥasan Baṣri was one of the slave girls of Ummu Salimah,³ and he received his name from Omar-b-Khaṭṭáb. He early became an orphan. From the dawn of intelligence his mind was illumined and through this brilliant destiny he chose the path of solitude and emaciated himself by austerities while he became filled with the good things of the spirit. He preached a discourse every week and gathered an assembly around him. When Rábi'ah¹ was not present, he would not proceed. The people said to him, “Why dost thou desist because some old woman does not come.” He answered, “The food prepared for elephants is of no profit to ants.”

The FIRST order trace their connection with Ḥabíb-i-Ajamí. He was a man of substance and hypocritical in his life. His eyes were opened somewhat by Suhrawardí² and he was directed to the true faith by Ḥasan Baṣrí. Many disciples were instructed by him in the way of salvation. Once when he was escaping from the pursuivants of Ḥajjáj, he arrived at the cell of Ḥabíb. The officers asked him where Ḥasan was. He replied within the cell. They searched, but could not find him and reprimanded Ḥabíb and said, “Whatever Ḥajjáj may do to you, will be deserved.” He answered, “I have spoken only the truth. If you have not seen him what fault is it of mine?” They again entered and made a strict search and returned in anger and departed reviling him; Ḥasan thereupon came forth and said, “O Ḥabíb, thou hast, indeed, truly done thy duty by thy master.” He answered, “O master, thou hast been saved by the telling of the truth. Had I spoken falsely we should both have been killed.” One night a needle fell from his hand in a dark room. A miraculous light shone. He covered his eyes with his hands and said, “Nay, nay, I wish not to search for a needle save by the light of a lamp.”³

The THIRD order derive from Mạrúf Karkhí. They say that his father was a Christian and changed his faith under Imám Riẓá and was honoured with the office of his door-keeper. He associated with Dáúd Ṭáí and practised mortification and through his rectitude of intention and perfected acts he rose to be a spiritual guide. Saríy Saḳaṭíy and many others profited by his instruction. He died in A. H. 200 (A. D. 815). It was about this time that Magians, Christians, and Jews thronged to him and each wished to practise his own faith under his direction, but it could not be carried out. Nevertheless he held a place in the pleasant retreat of universal tolerance.

The FOURTH follow Saríy Saḳatíy whose patronymic is Abu'l Ḥasan. He is one of the great masters of the practical religious life and was the director of Junayd and many other servants of God. He was one of the associates of Ḥárith Muḥásibí and Bishr al Ḥáfi, and was the disciple of Mạrúf Karkhí. Adequate praise of him is beyond the capacity of my ignorance. In the year A. H. 253 (A D. 867), he gathered up his garment from this dust-heap of a world.

The SIXTH acknowledge Abú Isḥáḳ-b-Shahryár as their head. His father abandoned the doctrines of Zoroaster and embraced the creed of Islám. He was instructed by Shaykh Abú Alí Firozábádí and was the contemporary of many doctors of the faith, and had mastered all secular and speculative science. He was released from the turmoils of earth in A. H. 426 (A. D. 1034-35).

The SEVENTH was founded by Aláu'ddín Ṭúsi, who was united in the bonds of a spiritual paternity with Shaykh Najmu'ddín Kubra.

The EIGHTH invoke Shaykh Najmu'ddín Kubra. His patronymic was Abú Janáb, his name Aḥmad Khíwaḳí, and his title Kubra, or the Greater.¹ He was spiritually directed by Shaykh Ismáíl Ḳaṣrí, Ammár Yásir and Rozbihán, and he had great repute for his insight into matters of the exterior and inner life. Shaykh Majdu'ddín Baghdádí, Shaykh Saạdu'ddín Hammawíyah, Shaykh Raẓiu'ddín Ali Lálá, Bábá Kamál Jandí, Shaykh Sayfu'ddín Bákharzí and many other religious obtained their eternal salvation through his efficacious prayers. He died by the sword in A. H. 618 (A. D. 1221).

The NINTH is favoured through Shaykh Zíáu'ddín Abu'n Najíb Abdu'l Ḳahir Suhrawardí. He was versed in the knowledge of the world and the spirit, and traced his descent from Abú Bakr aṣ Ṣiddíḳ² by twelve intermediary links. His doctrinal precepts he derived in direct transmission from Shaykh Aḥmad Ghazzálí; and he was the author of many works, among them the A´dábu'l Murídín (Institutiones Discipulorum). He passed to his heavenly abode in A. H. 563 (A. D. 1167-68).

The TENTH follow Shaykh Abdu'l Wáḥid-b-Zayd.

The ELEVENTH acknowledge Fuẓayl-b-I'yáẓ. His patronymic is Abú Alí and he was a native of Kúfah, but according to others of Bokhárá, and other places are also named. He passed his days as a wandering dervish between Marv and Báward (Abiward), and from his natural goodness of disposition, received interior illumination and his virtuous conduct assured his salvation. He passed from the world in A. H. 187 (A. D. 802-3).

The TWELFTH take Ibráhím Adham of Balkh as their guide. His patronymic was Abú Isḥáḳ. His ancestors were of princely race and the star of his happy destiny shone forth from his early youth, for he withdrew himself altogether from the world. He associated with Abú Sufyán Tḥaurí, Fuẓayl-b-I'yáẓ, Abú Yúsuf Ghasúlí and was in intimacy with Alí-b-Bakkár, Ḥuzayfah Marạshí and Silm al-Khawwaṣ. He died in Syria in the year A. H. 161 or 162 (A. D. 777-78-79).

The THIRTEENTH trace back to Hubayrah of Baṣrah.

The FOURTEENTH are connected with Abú Isḥáḳ Shámí who was the disciple of Shaykh U'lúw Dínawarí. When the Shaykh arrived at the village of Chisht, Khwájah Abú Aḥmad Abdál, who was the foremost among the Shaykhs of Chisht received instruction from him,¹ and after him his son Muḥammad illumined the lamp of sanctity. Following him, his nephew Khwájah Samạání carried on the doctrine, whose son Khwájah Maudúd Chishtí succeeded to the headship. His son Khwájah Aḥmad also reached the same eminence.

There is, however, no exclusive claim in regard to either of these two lists. Any chosen soul who, in the mortification of the deceitful spirit and in the worship of God, introduced some new motive of conduct, and whose spiritual sons in succession continued to keep alight the lamp of doctrine, was acknowledged as the founder of a new line, for besides these twelve and fourteen orders, many another catena of religious schools has a worldwide repute, such as the

which follows Shaykh Muḥyí'ddín Abdu'l Ḳádir Jíli. He was a Sayyid descended from Ḥusayn. Jíl is the name of a village near Baghdad. Some authorities state that he was from Jílán.¹ He was supreme in his time for his secular and spiritual knowledge. He received his dervish's habit from the hands of Abú Sạíd al-Mubárak (b. Ali al-Makhzúmí), and is thus spiritually connected with ash-Shiblí through four intermediaries. His sanctity and extraordinary miracles are world-famed. He was born into the world in A. H. 471 (A. D. 1078), and bid farewell to it in A. H. 561 (A.D. 1165).

These are disciples of Khwájah Aḥmad Yasawí. In his youth he was under the supervision of Báb Arslán, who was an eminent spiritual guide among the Turks. On his death he profited by the instruction of Khwájah Yúsuf Hamadání. The Turks call him A´tá Yasawí; A´tá in Turkish signifying a father, and their saints are thus designated.² He returned to Turkistán at the command of the Khwájah and ended his days in the spiritual instruction of the people. Many miracles are reported of him. Four spiritual delegates are celebrated as religious guides: Manṣúr A´tá, Sạíd A´tá, Sulaymán A´tá, and Ḥakím A´tá. Yasí is a town in Turkistán, the birthplace and town of this Shaykh.

This school owe their eternal salvation to Khwájah Bahá u'ddín Naḳshband. His name was Muḥammad-b-Muḥammad al-Bokhárí. He was a disciple of Khwájah Muḥammad Bábá Sammásí and received his religious instruction in regard to exterior conduct from (Sayyid) Amír Kulál, his delegate. Khwájah Sammásí used often to say to Khwájah Ali Rámíthaní,³ [universally known as (Haẓrat) Azízán], as they passed in the vicinity of Ḳaṣr i Hinduán, “From this soil there comes the fragrance of a man that will soon make the Ḳaṣr i Hinduán (Castle of Hinduán), be called the Kaṣri Aárifán (Castle of the Pious);” till one day coming from the house of (Sayyid) Amír Kulál and passing the castle, he exclaimed, “The fragrance has increased—that man verily has been born.” On inquiry it was found that three days had elapsed since the birth of the Khwájah. His father carried him to the Bábá, who said that he would adopt him as his spiritual son, and turning to his friends said: “This is the one whose fragrance I smelt, and who will be the spiritual guide of the world.” To Amír Kulál he said; “Withhold no care or kindness in the bringing up of our son Baháu'ddín.” His orders were carried out. After a time when his fame grew, Bábá Sammási said to him: “Your zeal has a loftier flight. You have my permission to go and beg of other souls.” Thereupon he went to Ḳutham Shaykh¹ and attended his instruction, and profited by the guidance of Khalíl A´tá and realised his purpose through the spiritual aid of Khwájah Abd u'l Kháliḳ Ghujduwání.² The source of his interior illumination was (the prophet) Khiẓr; his faith and discipline were derived from Khwájah Yúsuf Hamadání. Khwájah Yúsuf had four vicegerents, Khwájah Abdu'llah Barḳí, Khwájah Ḥasan Andaḳí,³ Khwájah Aḥmad Yasawí, and Khwájah Abdu'l Kháliḳ Ghujduwání. Khwájah Yúsuf had received instruction from Shaykh Abú Alí Fármiḍí, and he from Shaykh Abu 'l Ḳásim Gurgání. The latter was the disciple of the following two personages, Junayd and Shaykh Abu'l Ḥasan Kharaḳáni, and these of Báyazíd Bisṭámi, and Báyazíd of the Imám Jaạfar aṣ-Ṣádiḳ.⁴ The Imám was himself nourished from two sources; on the one side from his father Muḥammad Báḳir, and he, from his father Imám Zaynu'l Aábidín, and he from his grand-parent the Imám Ḥusayn, and on the other from his mother's father Ḳásim-b-Muḥammad-b-Abú Bakr, and Ḳásim from Salmán al-Fársí (the companion) and Salmán¹ from Abú Bakr.

It is said that Khwájah Baháu'ddín had neither a slave nor a handmaid, and when asked the reason of this, he replied that (“the maintenance of) bondage was incompatible with the profession of a religious teacher.” They inquired of him: “To what stage does your spiritual ancestry go back?” He replied, “No one reaches any stage by virtue of a spiritual ancestry.” On the night of Monday, 3rd Rabíi' I, A. H. 791, (4th March, A. D. 1389) he disburdened himself of his elemental body.

The case of these orders is similar to that of the four schools of theology. Any one reaching the rank of Mujtahid may become a doctrinal authority, and there is no difficulty in the recognition of this as fourfold.

But it is better that I should desist from further details and seek the divine mercy by mentioning the Saints of God. In the following enumeration, under the title of “Saints,” I have recorded the names of forty-eight only among thousands, and make this a means towards the attainment of eternal bliss.

Was the son of Naṣr at-Tabrindí;² his patronymic was Abu'l Riẓá. In the time of Ignorance he was born at Tabrindah and went to Ḥijáz and saw the Prophet, and after many wanderings returned to India. Many accepted the accounts he related, while others rejected them as the garrulity of senile age. He died at Tabarindah, in A. H. 700 (A. D. 1300–1), and was there buried. Shaykh Ibn i Ḥajr Asḳalání, Majdu'ddín Fírozábádí, Shaykh Alá u' ddaulah as Símnáni, Khwájah Muḥammad Pársá and many pious individuals acknowledged and commended him.

Was the son of Ghiyáṣu'ddín Ḥasan and a Sayyid in descent from both Ḥasan and Ḥusayn, and was born in A. H. 537 (A. D. 1142), in the village of Sijz, of the province of Sijistán.

At the age of fifteen he lost his father. Ibráhím Ḳahandazí,¹ a man absorbed in divine things, regarded him with an eye of favour and set aflame the gathered harvest of worldliness with the fire of divine ardour, and guided him in his quest. In Harún, a village of Níshápúr, he attended Khwájah Othmán Chishtí, and practised a mortified life and received the habit of Khalífah or vicegerent. Subsequently he reached a higher degree of perfection and was spiritually benefited by Shaykh Abdu'l Ḳádir Jílí and other holy men. In the year that Mu'izzu'ddín Sám took Delhi (A. H. 589, A. D. 1193), he arrived at that city, and with a view of a life of seclusion withdrew to A´jmer and there inspired the same zeal among numerous disciples by his own efficacious will. He shared the reward of a heavenly kingdom on Saturday, the 6th of Rajab, A. H. 633 (18th March 1236). His resting place is at the foot of the hilly range of that district and is visited to this day by high and low.

His patronymic was Abu'l Ḥasan. His father was Othmán-b-Abí Alí Jullábí. He lived secluded from ordinary worldly concerns and obtained a high degree of knowledge. An account of him is given in the Kashfu'l Maḥjúb li Arbábi'l Ḳulúb (delectio eorum qui relata sunt in favorem cordatorum).¹ In this work he says, “I followed in this path Shaykh Abu'l Faẓl-b-Ḥasan al Khatlí.” His resting place is in Láhor.

A man of extensive erudition. Khwájah Mu'ín'uddín attended his instructions at Lahór where his tomb is, and which is visited by many to the gain of their eternal welfare.

Was the son of Wajíhu'ddín Muḥammad-b-Kamálu'ddín Alí Sháh Ḳurayshí, and was born at Kóṭ Karor, near Multán, in A. H. 565 (A. D. 1169-70). His father died when he was a child; he grew in wisdom and studied in Túrán and Irán. He received his doctrine from Shaykh Shihábu'ddín Suhrawardí at Baghdad and reached the degree of vicegerent. He was on terms of great friendship with Shaykh Faríd (u'ddín) Shakkarganj, and lived with him for a considerable time. Shaykh (Fakhru'ddín) I'ráḳi and Mir Ḥusayní were his disciples. On the 7th of Ṣafar, A. H. 665 (7th November 1266), an aged person of serene aspect sent in to him a sealed letter by the hand of his son Ṣadru'ddín. He read it and gave up the ghost, and a loud voice was heard from the four corners of the town: “Friend is united to Friend.” His resting place is in Multán.

Was the son of Kamálu'ddín Músa and came from U´sh of Farghánah. He lost his father² when very young and privileged by the vision of (the Prophet) Khiẓr was keenly desirous of meeting with a spiritual guide till the arrival in U´sh of Khwájah Mu'ínu'ddín. At the age of eighteen he received his doctrine and became a vicegerent. He profited by the instruction of many saints at Baghdad and other places. In the desire of meeting with a holy director he came to India and for a time attended Shaykh Baháu'ddín Zakaríyá. He arrived in Delhi in the reign of Shamsu'ddín Altmish. The Khwájah (Mu'ínu'ddín) went there on a visit to him and after a little, left him and returned. He was of great service to the people in general. He died on the 14th³ of Rabíi' I, A. H. 633 (Saturday, 27th November, A. D. 1235). His tomb is in Delhi where it is visited by all classes.

Was the son of Jamálu'ddín Sulaymán,⁴ a descendant of Farrukh Sháh Kábulí. His birthplace was the village of Khotwal, near Multán. In his early youth he followed the common course of studies. At Multán he met Khwájah Ḳuṭbu'ddín, went with him to Delhi and was instructed in his doctrine. Some authorities state that he did not accompany him to Delhi, but took his leave on the way and hastened to Ḳandahár and Sístán, where he set himself to the garnering of knowledge. He then came to Delhi and put himself under disciplinary rule. He had many warrings with the spirit in which he eventually triumphed. When Khwájah Ḳuṭbu'ddín was on the point of death, there were present Káẓí Ḥamídu'ddín Nágorí, Shaykh Badru'ddín Ghaznaví and many other holy men. They agreed that the habit and other personal belongings of the dying man should be committed to Shaykh Farídu'ddín. The Shaykh who was then at the town of Jhánsí, on hearing this, went to Delhi, and taking possession of the trust, returned. He was the source of blessings to many people. He bade farewell to this fleeting world on the 5th of Muḥarram, A. H. 668¹ (Monday, 5th September 1269), at (Pák) Pattan in the Panjáb, which at that time was called Ajodhan.

Was the son of Shaykh Baháu'ddín. During his father's life-time he reached the highest degree of sanctity. Sayyids Fakhru'ddín I'ráḳí and Mír Ḥusayn were his disciples. He died in Multán, where he is buried, in A. H. 709 (A. D. 1309).

His name was Muḥammad and he was the son of Aḥmad Dányál who came from Ghaznín to Badáon in A. H. 632 (A. D. 1234-35), where Niẓámu'ddín was born. For a time he went through the ordinary course of studies and received the epithet of Niẓám al-Baḥḥátḥ, or the Controversialist, and Maḥfil Shikan, the Assembly-router. At the age of twenty he went to Ajodhan and became the disciple of Farídu'ddín Ganj i Shakkar and obtained the key of the treasury of inward illumination. He was then sent to Delhi to instruct the people, and many under his direction attained to the heights of sanctity, such as Shaykh Naṣíru'ddín Muḥammad Chirágh i Dihlí, Mír Khusrau, Shaykh Aláu'l Ḥaḳḳ, Shaykh Akhí Siráj, in Bengal, Shaykh Wajíhu'ddín Yúsuf in Chandérí, Shaykh Yạḳúb and Shaykh Kamál in Málwah, Mauláná Ghiyáṣ, in Dhár, Mauláná Mughíṣ, in Ujjain, Shaykh Ḥusain, in Gujarát, Shaykh Burhánu'ddín Gharíb, Shaykh Muntakhab, Khwájah Ḥasan, in the Dekhan. He died in the forenoon of Wednesday, the 18th Rabíi' II, A. H. 725 (3rd April 1325). His tomb is in Delhi.¹

Was the son of Ṣadru'ddín Aárif and the successor of his eminent grandfather. At the time when Sulṭán Ḳuṭbu'ddín (Mubárak Sháh Khiljí, (A. H. 717. A. D. 1317), regarded Shaykh Niẓámu'ddín with disfavour, he summoned Shaykh Ruknu'ddín from Multán in the hope of disturbing his influence. On his arrival near Delhi he met Shaykh Niẓámu'ddín. Ḳuṭbu'ddín on receiving the Shaykh (Ruknu'ddín) asked him “Who among the people of the city was the foremost in going out to meet him?” He replied: “The most eminent person of his age.” By this happy answer he removed the king's displeasure.² His restingplace is Multán.

Was the disciple of Sạíd Tabrízí. After some wanderings, he fell in with Shaykh Shihábu'ddín Suhrawardí and by his zealous service attained the office of vicegerent. He was on terms of intimacy with Khwájah Ḳuṭbu'ddín and Shaykh Baháu'ddín Zakaríyá. Shaykh Najmu'ddín Ṣughra, who was Shaykh u'l Islám at Delhi, bore enmity against him and maliciously incited a disreputable woman to accuse the Shaykh of incontinence. Through the miraculous powers of Shaykh Baháu'ddín Zakaríyá, the falsehood of the charge was established. He then went to Bengal. His tomb is in the port of Dev Maḥal.

His birthplace was Oudh. He lived a life of extraordinary abstraction, heedless of all save the worship of God. It is said that Khwájah Ḳuṭbu'ddín and he, with a number of others, were taken prisoners by the Mughals. Hunger and thirst drove the captives to the greatest straits. It was then that the Khwájah, by supernatural power, drew forth from his wallet warm cakes (kák), with which he supplied each one of the party, while the Ṣúfí gave them all to drink from his broken water-vessel (badhná). From this circumstance the Khwájah was called Kákí,¹ and the other Badhní.

One of the greatest of the ascetics. He lived apart from worldly intercourse and passed his days in ruined places. Khwájah Ḳuṭbu'ddín U´shi sent him the habit of a recluse, which he took and threw into the fire. The bearer reviled him to the Khwájah who replied, “Go and demand it back, so that thou mayest know what has in reality happened.” When he made his request, Khwájah Karak said, “Go, and take out a cloak from the fireplace, but only your own.” When he went to look, he found that habit among many others, and repented of his conduct. His tomb is at Karrah,³ Mánikpúr.

He stood in the relation of a disciple to his maternal uncle Shaykh Shihábu'ddín Aḥmad Ghaznaví and flourished during the reign of Shams u'ddín Altmish. Khwájah Ḳuṭbu'ddín U´shi and Shaykh Niẓámu'ddín Auliyá, both considered an interview with him as a great happiness.

Was the disciple of Shaykh Badru'ddín Firdausí of Samarḳand, who was the khalífah or vicegerent of Shaykh Sayfu'ddín Bákharzí,¹ who held the same relation to Shaykh Najmu'ddín Kubra. From thence he came to Delhi and for a time directed the consciences of men, and there died. Some say that he and Shaykh I'mádu'ddín Ṭúsí were the disciples and vicegerents of Shaykh Ruknu'ddín Fírdausí.

Was the son of Aṭáu'ddín of Bokhárá, where he was born. In the reign of Mu'izzu'ddín Sám he came to Delhi with his father, and for three years held the office of Ḳáẓí at Nágor. Unexpectedly the desire of a life of retirement seized him. Abandoning the world he journeyed to Baghdad and became the disciple of Shaykh Shihábu'ddín Suhrawardí. There he entered into intimate friendship with Khwájah Ḳuṭbu'ddín and after travelling to Ḥijáz came to Delhi. He died on the night of the 5th of Ramaẓán, A. H. 644 (Sunday, 9th November, A. D. 1246) without any previous illness. He is buried in Delhi.

Was the son of Shaykh Aḥmad. In his early youth he was handsome and rich, but in pursuit of the truth he abandoned the world and applied himself to the practice of austerities. He wore the mantle of discipleship under Khwájah Mu'ínu'ddín and attained a high degree of perfection. He was styled Sulṭán u't-Tárikín, the King of Recluses. He rolled up the carpet of life on the 29th Rabíi' II, A. H. 673 (31st October 1274). His restingplace is in Nágor.⁴

Was the brother and disciple of Shaykh Farídu'ddín Ganj i Shakkar. Shaykh Niẓámu'ddín used to say: “When I left Badáon for Delhi desiring to pay my respects to Ganj i Shakkar, I met Najíbu'ddin and was much benefited by his society.” He died on the 9th of Ramaẓán, A. H. 660. (27th July 1261).

His birthplace was Ghaznah.¹ In a dream he received the discipleship of Khwájah Ḳuṭbu'ddín U´shí, and abandoning all, undertook the toil of a journey in quest of the holy man. In Delhi his desires were fulfilled and he received the office of vicegerent. Ḳáẓí Ḥámidu'ddín, Shaykh Faríd u'ddín Ganj i Shakkar, Sayyid Mubárak Ghaznaví, Mauláná Majdu'ddín Jurjání, Shaykh Ziyáu'ddín Dihlaví, and other eminent personages received the blessing of his instructions. In his old age when he was unable to move, the sound of a hymn would excite him to ecstasy and he would dance like a youth. When asked how it was that the Shaykh could dance notwithstanding his decrepitude, he replied: “Where is the Shaykh? It is Love that dances.” His resting-place is at the foot of his own master's grave.

Was the son of Minháju'ddín Bokhárí, but some say he was the son of Alí-b-Isḥáḳ, of Delhi, where he was born. He went through the usual course of studies, but some speculative difficulties not being solved in this country he set out for Bokhárá. At Ajodhan, in intercourse with Ganj i Shakkar, his doubts were removed, and becoming his disciple he set himself to mortify his senses. The Shaykh conferred on him the distinction of being both his vicegerent and his son-in-law. He was buried in that place.

His name was Maḥmúd and his birthplace Delhi. He was the disciple and vicegerent of Shaykh Niẓámu'ddín Auliyá. He departed from this world that all must leave on the 1st of Ramaẓán, A. H. 757, (2nd Sept. 1356).

His patronymic was Abú Alí Ḳalandar. He lived as a recluse and in one of his writings he says of himself: “At the age of forty I came to Delhi and received instruction under Khwájah Ḳuṭbu'ddín. Mauláná Wajíhu'ddín Páilí, Mauláná Ṣadru'ddín, Mauláná Fakhru'ddín Náfilah, Mauláná Náṣiru'ddín, Mauláná Mu'ínu'ddín Daulatábábádí, Mauláná Najíbu'ddín Samarḳandí, Mauláná Ḳuṭbu'ddín of Mecca, Mauláná Aḥmad Khansárí and other learned men of the day gave me a license to teach and to pronounce judicial decisions, which offices I exercised for twenty years. Unexpectedly I received a call from God, and throwing all my learned books into the Jumna, I set out on travel. In Roumelia¹ I fell in with Shamsu'ddín Tabrízí and Mauláná Jalálu'ddín Rúmí who presented me with a robe and turban and with many books, which in their presence I threw into the river. Subsequently I came to Pánípat and there lived as a recluse.” His tomb is there.

His birthplace was Nahrwálah, commonly known as Paṭṭan.² He became the disciple of Ḥamídu'ddín Nágórí and attained the high rank of a vicegerent; Shaykh Baháu'ddin Zakaríyá who was difficult to please, much commended him. He was buried at Badáon.

Was the son of Sayyid Maḥmúd-b-Sayyid Jalálu'ddín Bokhárí.³ He was universally known as Makhdúm i Jahániyán (lord of mankind).

He was born on the Shab-i-Barát, 14th Shaạbán, A. H. 707, (7th Feb., A. D. 1307). He was the disciple of his father and received a vicegerency from Shaykh Ruknu'ddín Abu'l Fatḥ Suhrawardí. It is said that he journeyed much and had intercourse with Imám Yáfạí and many others. He visited Shaykh Naṣíru'ddín Chirágh i Dihlaví, and became a vicegerent in the Chisht family. He put off his earthly body on Thursday, the I´d-i-Ḳurbán, 10th Zil Ḥijjah, A. H. 785, (2nd Feb., A. D. 1383). He was buried al U´chh, near Multán.⁴

Was the son of Yaḥya-b-Isráíl, the head of the Chishtís. He was instructed under Ganj i Shakkar. His childhood passed, he practised a life of austerity in the hills, and in the desire of seeing Shaykh Niẓám Auliyá, he went to Delhi with his eldest brother, Shaykh Jalálu'ddín Muḥammad. The Shaykh meanwhile had died, but others affirm that he saw him and by his direction went to Najíbu'ddín Firdausí, and after discipleship became his vicegerent. Shaykh Shamsu'ddín Muzaffar of Balkh and Shaykh Jalálu'ddín Awadhí, called also Jamál Ḳitál, received the vicegerency from him. He left many works, and amongst them his writings on the mortification of the spirit are in use as exercises. His burial-place is in Behár.

Was the descendant of Abú Ḥanífah of Kúfah. His profession was to deliver discourses and pronounce judical decisions, but renouncing this office he became the disciple of Shaykh Faríd Ganj i Shakkar and reached a high degree of virtue. To whomsoever the Shaykh Faríd gave a certificate of vicegerency, he would send him to Jamálu'ddín on whose approval the certificate took effect. If he did not approve the Shaykh would say that what Jamál tore up Faríd could not repair. He was buried in Hánsí.

His title was Badíi'u'ddín. High and low throughout Hindustan have great devotion to him and attest his great sanctity. They say that he was the disciple of Shaykh Muḥammad Ṭayfúrí Bisṭamí. He never wore garments of rich texture and he held aloof from men. Every Monday his doors used to be open and a crowd of suppliants collected. As the people respectfully kept back, it was his custom to recite some story in which those who sought advice received their answer; and whoever heard the response which befitted his case, he rose blessing him. Strange tales are told of him. The Madárí order take their origin from him. His resting-place is in Makanpúr.

On the anniversary of his decease every year, crowds of people from distant parts flock thither, carrying banners of all colours, and recite his praises. Káẓí Shihábu'ddin in the reign of Sulṭán Ibráhím Sharḳi¹ had a quarrel with him of which he found reason to repent.

Was the son of Shaykh Aláu'l Ḥaḳḳ. His true name is Shaykh Núru'ddín Aḥmad-b-O'mar Asạd, and he was born at Láhor. He was the disciple and vicegerent of his eminent father, who received the vicegerency from Shaykh Akhí Siráj. He in some degree attained to the knowledge of the Ineffable Mystery and became a mystic of exalted degree, as his works and some of his letters, in themselves, testify. Shaykh Ḥusámu'ddín Mánikpúrí was his vicegerent. He died in A. H. 808 (A. D., 1405), and was buried at Panḍuah.

Was born at Delhi and was the disciple of Ḥájí Shaykh Muḥammad Kímí.¹ His line of succession through some few intermediaries, traces back to Junayd. Shaykh Aḥmad Khaṭṭú² thus writes: “I went to Delhi in his company. He showed me his old dwelling and said: “At the age of twelve I set out in search of spiritual help from saintly souls and chosing the vocation of a recluse received instruction from many eminent persons, and in the city of Kím, in Mauritania, and in intercourse with Shaykh Muḥammad who had made the pilgrimage to Mecca, I attained to the desire of my heart, and became a vicegerent.” He returned to Delhi in the reign of Sulṭán Muḥammad who received him with much honour. Khwájah Mu'ínu'ddín instructed him in a vision to retire to Khaṭṭú in seclusion, and he followed this direction.

His title was Jamálu'ddín and he was born at Delhi, in A. H. 737 (A. D. 1336), of a noble family of that city. He was the disciple and vicegerent of Bábá Isḥáḳ Maghrabí. His name was Naṣíru'ddín. By a freak of fortune he was carried away from his dwelling in a tempest of wind. After a time he was blessed with the instruction of Bábá Isḥáḳ Maghrabí and garnered a store of secular and theological learning. In the reign of Sulṭán Aḥmad Gujarátí (A. D. 1411–43), he came to Gujarát where all classes received him with respect and were loud in his praise. He subsequently travelled in Arabia and Persia and met many eminent doctors. He was buried in Sarkhech, near Aḥmadábád.

Was the son of Sayyid Aḥmad Kabír-b-Sayyid Jalálu'ddín Bokhárí, and was commonly known as Rájú Ḳitál.³ He was the disciple and vicegerent of his father and received also the latter distinction from his brother Makhdúm-i-Jahániyán and Shaykh Ruknu'ddín Abu'l-Fatḥ. Sulṭán Firoz held him in great honour. He slept his last sleep in A. H. 806 (A. D. 1403).

Was the grandson of Shaykh Farídu'ddín Ganj i Shakkar, and son of Badru'ddín Sulaymán. He was a man of a holy and commendable life and attained to great spiritual eminence. On his decease Sulṭán Muḥammad Tughlaḳ built a mausoleum over his remains.

Was the disciple and vicegerent of Shaykh Naṣíru'ddín Chirágh-i-Dihlí. He became proficient in theology and secular knowledge and by the direction of his spiritual guide went from Delhi to the Dekhan, where he was received with honour by high and low. He died in A. H. 825 (A. D. 1421–2), and was buried at Kulbargah.¹

His patronymic was Abú Muḥammad, and his title Burhánu'ddín. He was the son of Sháh Muḥammad-b-Sayyid Jalálu'ddín Makhdúm i-Jahániyán, and was born in A. H. 790 (A. D. 1388). He was the disciple of his illustrious father and received the vicegerency from Shaykh Aḥmad Khaṭṭú. In the reign of Sulṭán Muḥammad (Sháh Karím, A. D. 1443–51), the descendant of Sulṭán Muẓaffar Sháh by two removes,² by order of his father he came to Gujarát and there became eminent in secular and speculative learning. He died in A. H. 857 (A. D. 1453). His tomb is in Baṭwah,³ near Aḥmadábád.

His name was Sayyid Muḥammad, he was the son of Ḳuṭb-i-Aálam and was born on the 9th of Zu'lḳaạdah, A. H. 817 (18th January 1415) He was the disciple of his father from whom he received the vicegerency and attained to eminent sanctity. Extraordinary miracles are related of him. His days came to an end on the 20th Jumáda II., A. H. 880 (21st Oct. 1475). He lies buried at Rasúlábád, near Aḥmadábád.

Was the son of Shaykh Burhánu'ddín-b-Shaykh Jamálu'ddín of Háṅnsí and the disciple and vicegerent of Shaykh Niẓámu'ddín Auliyá. He lived apart from men and took no presents from princes. Sulṭán Muḥammad in person went to Háṅnsí and brought him to Delhi. He is buried at Háṅnsí.

Was the son of Mauláná Aḥmad Maháyamí. He became proficient in worldly and spiritual knowledge and explained the mysteries after the manner of Shaykh Muḥyí'ddín Arabí. He has left many works on theology, but most of them are no longer extant.

Was the son of Sayyid Baḍh Uwaysí. He received instruction under many holy men and was learned in spiritual and secular knowledge. Carried away by extravagance he laid claim to be a Mahdí¹ and many followers gathered round him and numerous miracles are ascribed to him. He is the origin of the Mahdavís. From Jaunpúr he went to Gujarát and was much in favour with Sulṭán Maḥmúd the Great. The narrow-mindedness of worldlings made India intolerable to him and he resolved to pass into Persia, but died at Farrah and was there buried.

His name was Yúsuf and his birthplace Ẓafarábád. He was the disciple and vicegerent of Shaykh Ḥasan Ṭáhir, surnamed Kamálu'l Ḥaḳḳ. He was also the disciple of Hájí Ḥámid who was the vicegerent of Ḥusámu'ddín Mánikpúrí. He acquired secular and theological learning. His spiritual guide, during his own lifetime, charged him with the superintendence of his vicegerents, and at his death entrusted to his care his own son Abdu'l Azíz. On the 15th of Ṣafar, A. H. 900 (13th November 1494), he rested from the troubles of the world.

His birthplace was Siwánah. He was the disciple and vicegerent of Baháu'ddín Jaunpúrí Shaṭṭárí. Some say that he was instructed by Shaykh Ḳáṣá² Shaṭṭárí, while others affirm that his connection with all spiritual families can be correctly proved. In the year A. H. 905 (A. D. 1499), he passed from earth. His restingplace is Jaunpúr.

Was the son of Shaykh Jálindha³ -b-Muḥammad Gujarátí. He was born in Bírpúr.⁴ He was the disciple of his father and received the mantle of vicegerency from Sháh Aálam. Divine love filled his heart and many an edifying discourse fell from his lips. From the age of eleven he was spiritually illumined, and wonderful accounts are given regarding him. On the 13th Rabíi' II. of the year (A. H. 942. A. D. 1535) in which the Emperor Humáyún defeated Bahádur (Sháh) of Gujarát, he passed to the other world and lies buried in Bírpúr.

Was the disciple of Bábá Niẓám Abdál. He went through the usual course of studies for a time under Mauláná Abdu'l Ghafúr of Lár and sought spiritual guidance from many souls. He was thoroughly versed in the methods of exposition and exegesis of the schools and skilled in the complicated problems of philosophy, and he had met Sháh Niạmatu'llah Walí and Sháh Ḳásim Anwár. He slept his last sleep in Ramaẓán A. H. 937 (A. D. 1530).

Shaykh Jalálu'ddín Bokhárí had two sons. Makhdúm-i-Jahániyán was the son of Sayyid Maḥmúd and this (Shaykh Ḥájí) was descended from (the other son), Sayyid Aḥmad. He was the disciple and pupil of Sayyid Ṣadru'ddín Bokhárí. He was versed in secular and speculative science. He died in A. H. 932 (A. D. 1525-26).

Was born at Jhanjhána¹ and was the disciple and vicegerent of Sháh Muḥammad Ḥasan and the son of Shaykh Ḥasan Ṭáhir. At first he went through the usual course of studies which he abandoned for a higher aim. He died in A. H. 949 (A. D. 1542), and was buried at Jhanjhána.

He asserted himself to be a descendant of Abú Ḥanífah. He was the disciple of Shaykh Muḥammad-b-Shaykh Aárif-b-Shaykh Aḥmad Abd'ul Ḥaḳḳ. He acquired secular and spiritual learning and became eminent in theology. Many of his mystical sayings are recorded. The Emperor Humáyún with a few of the learned, visited him in his cell and an animated controversy took place. He folded up the carpet of his life in A. H. 950 (A. D. 1543). He was buried at Gangoyah,² near Delhi.

Was the son of Mu'ínu'ddín-b-Abdu'l Ḳádir Ḥusayní. His birthplace was I´raj.¹ He was the disciple of Shaykh Baháu'ddín Ḳádirí Shaṭṭárí. He was proficient in all learning and rarely equalled for his good deeds. He had travelled much, and in the reign of Sulṭán Sikandar Lodí (A. D. 1517–40) went to Delhi. Shaykh Abdu'llah of Delhi, Miyán Ládan, Mauláná Abdu'l Ḳádir the soapmaker, and other celebrated doctors acknowledged his sanctity. He yielded up his fleeting life in A. H. 953 or 958 (A. D. 1546–51). He was buried at Delhi.

His name was Abdu'l Malik, son of Abdu'l Ghafúr. He was the disciple of Shaykh Muḥammad Ḥasan. By the direction of his master, he received various instruction under Shaykh Muḥammad Maudúd al-Lárí. He died on the 12th Rabíi' II., A. H. 958 (20th April, 1551).

Was the son of Shaykh Ḥamzah and his father's disciple. He chiefly led a retired life though among worldly occupations. He was buried at Dharsú.

I think it fitting to conclude these notices with an account of (the prophets) Khiẓr and Elias, and thus supplicate an enduring remembrance.

His name was Balyán, the son of Kalyán, the son of Fáligh (Phaleg), the son of Aábir (Heber), the son of Shálikh (Sale), the son of Arfakshad (Arphaxad), the son of Sám, (Sem), the son of Núḥ (Noé). Some call him Kalyán-b-Malkán, others Malkán, the son of Balyán, the son of Kalyán, the son of Simeon, the son of Sám, the son of Noé. His patronymic was Abu'l Abbás. He was called Khiẓr² because he sat upon a white skin which through the blessed influence of his feet turned to green. He was born in the time of Moses within two parasangs of Shíráz, or according to another opinion in the time of Abraham. Some place him shortly before the mission of Abraham and others, a considerable time after. Shaykh Aláu'ddaulah in his U'rwat (li Ahli'lkhalwat wa'ljalwat) (ansa viris solitariis et multum conspicuis oblata)¹ says of him, “he has many wives, and children are born to him and he gives them names, but no one can find a trace of him. It is now one hundred years and seven months that he has withdrawn himself from the world, and no children of his survive. In his early profession of broker he used to buy and sell and secure profit, and borrow and give in pledge; he is also learned in alchemy and knows where the treasures of the world lie buried, and by the command of God expends them in the service of the people, and never acts solely for his own benefit. He delights in music and dances, and will often pass a day and a night together in an ecstatic trance.² A thousand years ago he renewed his youth, and subsequent to that time this occurs after every one hundred and twenty years.” The Shaykh continues: “In this year the period of renewal takes place and from the epoch of the Hijrah up to this day the renewal has occurred seven times. He associates, and prays with the (saints called) Ḳuṭb and Abdál.⁸ They say that once in Medina some camel-men were having a fight with stones. A piece of stone struck Khiẓr on the head and cut it open. The wound chilled and became inflamed and his illness lasted three months. His prophetic office is disputed though many believe it.” He accompanied Zu'l Ḳarnayn (the two-horned Alexander)¹ in search of the water of life, and obtained the boon of length of days. Some say that both Elias and Khiẓr obtained the water of life, and others maintain that Khiẓr is a spirit who assumes various bodily forms, and they deny him to be of mortal race.

Was the son of Sem, the son of Noé, and grandfather of Khiẓr. Some authorities give his father's name as Yásín and some give Nusayy and different other names. Others again derive his genealogy thus,—that he was the son of Phineas, the son of Eleazar (I'ízár), the son of Aaron the brother of Moses. There is also a disagreement regarding his prophetical office. The Ḳuṭbs, Abdáls, and Khiẓr, stand to him in the light of disciples and revere him. He is tall of stature, with a large head; is reserved in speech and absorbed in thought. He has a solemn and awe-inspiring exterior, and the mysteries of all things are revealed to him. It is said that he was raised up for the defence of the faith of Moses and was sent as an inspired guide to the people of Baạlbak; when he found that his admonitions were of no avail, he asked for his deliverence from the Almighty,¹ and his prayer was heard. One day he went up into a hill with Eliseus, the son of Akhtúb, and a fiery chariot with its equipage and harness appeared, and leaving Eliseus as his successor he mounted the chariot and vanished from sight.

Extraordinary accounts are told of these two personages Khiẓr and Elias. The first mentioned roams chiefly over dry land and brings those who have strayed into the right path; the latter keeps by the coasts. Some reverse these conditions. Each has ten holy persons as their assistants, and both are said to have lived for many years and associate together. Some of the learned, however, do not believe in their existence. Elias is prayed to for the prevention of calamities, and Khiẓr for their remission after they have befallen.

That a general review of the state of Hindustan has been now presented and the modes of thought and the customs of its people explicitly recorded. As time pressed and my mind was ill at ease, I did not formulate the proofs of their doctrine nor compare them with the systems of Greece and Persia. Neither did I set down the various conflicting opinions among the Hindus, nor express the thoughts that occurred thereon to this bewildered member of the synod of creation. Were my spirit not too much oppressed by the gloomy toil of these pages and the deciphering of the characters of manuscripts, and did fortune favour and continue its aid, I would first arrange these systems of philosophy in due order and weigh them with those of the Grecian and Persian Schools, contributing somewhat of my own impartial conclusions in measured approval or disapproval, as my fastidious judgment dictated.

Before I had left my obscure home and had approached the gracious threshold of majesty which is the abode where truth meets with recognition, and had mixed with the learned of all creeds, it had been my constant wish that the Bountiful Giver of all desires would vouchsafe to me the companionship of five intelligent and well-disposed persons, namely, a scholar of literary attainments; a profound philosopher; a mystic of holy life; an accomplished rhetorician; and a thinker of speculative and lofty spirit. It was herein my desire that each of these through his own perspicacity and just views of the divine Government, should not regard the truth as captive to his own discoveries, but ever suspicious of his own liability to error, advance in his inquiries with a bold step so that in the common pursuit of truth, the opinions of each might be lucidly set forth. The prescriptive duties of investigation might, in such circumstances, be exercised, and convincing argument distinguished from specious fallacy and proof from all beside it, in he hope that from the heart-lacerating thorn-brakes of discord there might be a happy transition into the garden of unity. When from seclusion I became engaged in public affairs, the five wishes of my aspiring mind grew to fourteen, and nine Hindus increased the contemplated list. I found the majority of them, however, of a retrograde tendency, spinning like a silk-worm, a tissue round themselves, immeshed in their own conclusions, and conceding attainment of the truth to no other, while foxlike, artfully insinuating their own views. In dejection of spirit as one crazy, I nigh came unto losing the control of my reason and breaking the warp and woof of life. On a sudden the star of my fortune blazed in the ascendant and the Imperial grace interposed in my favour, and thus rescued in some measure from vain imaginings, I found peace in the pleasant pastures of universal toleration.

I trust that by the happy destiny of this God-fearing monarch this union will be realised, and my long-cherished desires bloom with the radiance of fulfilment.

O Lord! Unto my soul its sight restore,
And let my feet Thy stair of Truth explore.
The treasures of Thy clemency set free
And bid my spirit find its goal in Thee.
Grant through life's busy ways still at my side,
Thy grace may aid me and Thy mercy guide.

(P. 227.) As I have now succinctly described the Sacred Institutes, in acknowledgment of my own obligations and as a gift of price to the rest of mankind, it appears fitting that I should record somewhat of the sayings of his Imperial Majesty in relation both to secular and spiritual concerns, in order that his words and actions may become known to far and near.

The following are among his utterances:—

There exists a bond between the Creator and the creature which is not expressible in language.

Each thing has a quality inseparable from it and the heart is influenced by some irresistible attachment to the power of which it submits and builds thereon the foundation of its sorrows and joys. Whosoever by his brilliant destiny withdraws his affections from all worldly concerns, attains to the Divine love which is above all others.

(P. 228.) The existence of creatures depends on no other bond than this. Whoever is gifted with this wisdom shall reach a high perfection.

Whosoever habituates himself to preserve this sacred relation, will be withheld from it by no other occupation.

Hindu women fetch water from their rivers, tanks or wells, and many of them bear several pitchers one above the other upon their heads and converse and chat freely with their companions, walking the while over any inequalities of ground. If the heart in like manner preserves the balance of its pitchers, no harm will befall them. Why should men be inferior to these in their relations with the Almighty.

When this interior affection both in its immaterial and material aspects is thus strengthened, who can sever the attachment of the rational soul to the Supreme Being?

From the practice of real ascetism the transition is easy to unlawful mendicancy. Since a thing is best comprehended by contrast with its opposite, the latter also thus comes to be pleasurably regarded.

The intellect will not with the full assent of reason, confessedly oppose the divine law, but some do not believe in the divine books, nor credit that the Supreme essence that is tongueless will express itself in human speech, while others again differ in their interpretation of them.

The divine grace is shed upon all alike, but some from unpreparedness in due season and others from incapacity are unable to profit thereby; the handiwork of the potter evidences this truth.

The object of outward worship which they affect to call a new divine institute, is for the awakening of slumberers, otherwise the praise of God comes from the heart not the body.

The first degree of dutiful obedience is not to scowl with knitted brows when trials befall, but regarding them as the bitter remedies of a physician, to accept them with a cheerful countenance.

That which is without form cannot be seen whether in sleeping or waking, but it is apprehensible by force of imagination. To behold God in vision is, in fact, to be understood in this sense.

Most worshippers of God are intent on the advancement of their own desires not on His worship.

As the dark hair turns to grey, the hope arises that this hue which is never far distant, may be kept burnished by the wondrous workings of destiny, in order that the rust of the heart may be cleansed with it and its vision illumined.

Some there are who maintain that men walk in opposition to the will of God, and that their salvation depends on their renunciation of this evil habit; but he who is spiritually illumined knows that none can effectually oppose His commands, and physicians from this reflection provide a remedy for those that are sick.

Each person according to his condition gives the Supreme Being a name, but in reality to name the Unknowable is vain.

(P. 229.) The object of an appellative is the removal of ambiguity, but this is not predicable of the All Holy Essence.

There is no need to discuss the point that a vacuum in nature is impossible. God is omnipresent.

All that men account good and bad and virtue and vice, arises from the wondrous phases of God's grace: the discordant effects result from human action.

To impute the existence of evil to Satan is to make him a co-partner of the Almighty. If he is the robber, who is responsible for his being one?

The legend of Satan is an old-world notion. Who has the power to oppose the will of God?

A peasant was seized with a desire to seek the Lord. His spiritual guide learning his love for his cow, placed him in a confined space and directed him to exercise himself in meditation on that object. After a time he called him forth to test him. As the man had been absorbed in that contemplation, he persuaded himself that he had horns, and replied that his horns prevented his exit. His director seeing his single-mindedness, by degrees weaned him from his error.

The superiority of man rests on the jewel of reason. It is meet that he should labour in its burnishing, and turn not from its instruction.

A man is the disciple of his own reason. If it has naturally a good lustre, it becomes itself his director, and if it gains it under the direction of a higher mind, it is still a guide.

Commending obedience to the dictates of reason and reproving a slavish following of others need the aid of no arguments. If imitation were commendable, the prophets would have followed their predecessors.

Many whose minds are diseased persuade themselves into an affectation of health, but the spiritual physician recognises the impress on their brows.

As the body becomes sickly from indisposition, so the mind has its disorder; knowledge decays until a remedy is applied.

For a disordered mind there is no healing like the society of the virtuous.

To read the characters of men is a thing of great difficulty and is not in the power of every one.

The soul notwithstanding its superiority, takes the tone of the natural disposition by association with it and the brilliancy of its lustre thus becomes dimmed with dirt.

(P. 230.) Through dullness of insight the concerns of the soul which are the source of happiness are neglected, while the pampering of the body which enfeebles the spirit, is eagerly practised.

Men through attachments to their associates acquire their disposition, and much of good and of evil thus results to them.

When his understanding is still undeveloped, man is in constant change of mood; at one time taking joy in festivities, at another sitting disconsolate in the house of mourning. When his vision is raised to higher things, sorrow and joy withdraw.

Many in the conceit of their imagination and entangled in the thorn-brake of a blind assent to tradition, believe themselves to be followers of reason, whereas if it be carefully regarded they are not in its vicinity.

Many simpletons, worshippers of imitative custom, mistake the traditions of the ancients for the dictates of reason, and garner for themselves eternal perdition.

Acts and words are variously the effects of good sense, or of desire or of passion, but through the withdrawal of impartial judgment the facts are noisily misrepresented.

When rising from sleep which is a semblance of death, one should be earnest in giving thanks for a renewed life by seemly thoughts and virtuous actions.

Conscience requires that rectitude and probity which is commendable in the sight of all men, should be associated with appropriate action.

One should first labour for one's own edification and then turn to the acquisition of knowledge in the hope of lighting the lamp of wisdom and extinguishing the risings of dissension.

Alas! that in the first flush of youth our inestimable lives are unworthily spent. Let us hope that in future they may virtuously terminate.

The vulgar believe in miracles, but the wise man accepts nothing without adequate proof.

Although temporal and spiritual prosperity are based on the due worship of God, the welfare of children first lies in obedience to their fathers.

Alas! that the Emperor Humáyún died so early and that I had no opportunity of showing him faithful service!

The sorrows of men arise from their seeking their fortune before its destined time, or above what is decreed for them.

(To his son.) My good counsel is your brother. Hold it in honour.

(P. 231.) Ḥakím Mírzá¹ is a memorial of the Emperor Humáyún. Though he has acted ungratefully, I can be no other than forbearing.

Some bold spirits asked permission to lie in ambush and put an end to that rebel. I could not consent, thinking it remote from what was befitting in his regard. Thus both that distinguished memorial of majesty escaped from harm, and my devoted friends were shielded from peril.

The concerns of men are personal to themselves but through the predominance of greed and passion they intrude upon (those of) others.

It is meet that worldlings should lead a busy life in order that idleness may be discouraged and the desires may not wander towards unlawful objects.

It was my object that mendicancy should disappear from my dominions. Many persons were plentifully supplied with means, but through the malady of avarice it proved of no avail.

The world of existence is amenable only to kindness. No living creature deserves rejection.

The impulse of avarice, like pride, is not consonant with magnanimity, and, therefore, should not be suffered to enter or influence the mind.

The office of a spiritual director is to discern the state of the soul and to set about its reform, and lies not in growing the locks of an Ethiop and patching a tattered robe and holding formal discourses to an audience.

By guidance is meant indication of the road, not the gathering together of disciples.

To make a disciple is to instruct him in the service of God, not to make him a personal attendant.

Formerly I persecuted men into conformity with my faith and deemed it Islám. As I grew in knowledge, I was overwhelmed with shame. Not being a Muslim myself, it was unmeet to force others to become such. What constancy is to be expected from proselytes on compulsion?

Clemency and benevolence are the sources of happiness and length of days. Sheep that produce but one or two young ones in a year are in great numbers, while dogs notwithstanding their prolificacy are few

The phrase is remarkable that one sits to show the road, but one rises to rob it.¹

The difficulty is to live in the world and to refrain from evil, for the life of a recluse is one of bodily ease.

Although knowledge in itself is regarded as the summit of perfection, yet unless displayed in action it bears not the impress of worth; indeed, it may be considered worse than ignorance.

(P. 232.) Men from shortsightedness frequently seek their own advantage in what is harmful to them: how much the more must they err in regard to others.

Men through blindness do not observe what is around them, intent only on their own advantage. If a cat defiles its claws in the blood of a pigeon they are annoyed, but if it catches a mouse they rejoice? In what way has the bird served them or the latter unfortunate animal done them wrong?

The first step in this long road is not to give the rein to desire and anger, but to take a measured rule and align one's actions thereon.

When the light of wisdom shines, a man distinguishes what is truly his own. What he has is only borrowed.

In a storehouse, mice and sparrows and other animals have a common interest but from ill-nature each thinks the place his own.

Most people avoid the society of those they dislike, and do not let the displeasure of God occupy their thoughts.

It is my duty to be in good understanding with all men. If they walk in the way of God's will, interference with them would be in itself reprehensible: and if otherwise, they are under the malady of ignorance and deserve my compassion.

An artisan who rises to eminence in his profession has the grace of God with him. The worship of God is the occasion of his being honoured.

Sleep and food are a means for the renewal of strength in seeking to do the will of God. Miserable man from folly regards them as an end.

Although sleep brings health of body, yet as life is the greatest gift of God, it were better that it should be spent in wakefulness.

A man of penetration finds no (preordained) injustice. He regards adversity as a chastisement.

A wise man does not take heed for his daily sustenance. The analogy of bondsman and servant is an exhortation to him.

Happy is he who hath an ear wherewith to hear and an eye to see, for as truth cannot be overthrown, a blind man in posssession thereof will not follow an evil course.¹

Children are the young saplings in the garden of life. To love them is to turn our minds to the Bountiful Creator.

(P. 233.) To bestow in alms a coin which bears the impress of the name of God is very reprehensible.

In our prayers we should avoid the asking of temporal blessings in which the humiliation of another person is involved.

As to the seeking after God being thought to consist in controlling the natural bent of the spirit, most people find the solution of their troubles therein; were it otherwise, fruition would in many become a stair to further gratification.

The material world is analogous to the world of the spirit, for as in the one what is given in trust is again reclaimed, so in the other, works are required in accordance with knowledge.

In the receiving of admonition there is no respect of age or wealth. No distinction is recognized between the tender in years or the poor and others in the necessity of listening to the truth.

The prophets were all illiterate.² Believers should therefore retain one of their sons in that condition.

Since the poet builds on fiction, his creation cannot be seriously accepted.

A rope dancer performs with feet and hands, a poet with his tongue.

He who happily introduces the verses of another in his own compositions or appositely quotes them, discovers the other's merit and his own.

A certain religeus was addicted to gluttony. He met a discreet adviser who gave him a dish of pumpkin which he was to fill and eat thereof daily, and to draw a sectarial mark on his forehead with pounded lote-fruit (Rhamnus Zizyphus). At the same time, to throw him off the scent, he taught him a prayer to be recited. In a short time his failing was cured.

Would that we did not hear of such differences of opinion among professors of secular learning, nor were confounded by contradictory commentaries and explanations of tradition.

Discourses on philosophy have such a charm for me that they distract me from all else, and I forcibly restrain myself from listening to them, lest the necessary duties of the hour should be neglected.

There are but three causes of aberrant judgment, viz., incapacity of mind; the society of enemies in the guise of friends; the duplicity of friends that seek their own interest.

Would that none other than the prudent had the reading and writing of letters, in order that the base might have no opportunity of fabrication for their own purposes, or of persuading short-sighted simpletons by every specious lie.

The detection of fabrication is exceedingly difficult, but it can be compassed by weighing well the words of the speaker.

Although I am the master of so vast a kingdom, and all the appliances of government are to my hand, yet since true greatness consists in doing the will of God, my mind is not at ease in this diversity of sects and creeds; and apart from this outward pomp of circumstance, with what satisfaction in my despondency, can I undertake the sway of empire? I await the coming of some discreet man of principle, who will resolve the difficulties¹ of my conscience.

On the completion of my twentieth year, I experienced an internal bitterness, and from the lack of spiritual provision for my last journey, my soul was seized with exceeding sorrow.

(P. 234.) A darvesh on the northern bank of the Ráví, entered his cell and allowed no one to frequent it. On being asked the reason, he replied, that he was engaged in a special devotion, and that until the death of Abdu'llab Khán, governor of Túrán,¹ he would not leave it, nor allow any one access to him. His majesty said, “If he is one whose prayers are heard, then let him close the door of his good works upon us, otherwise let him refrain from this folly.”

If I could but find any one capable of governing the kingdom, I would at once place this burden upon his shoulders and withdraw therefrom.

If I were guilty of an unjust act, I would rise in judgment against myself. What shall I say, then, of my sons, my kindred and others?

The Giver of desires has committed to my charge many a noble fortress. No one has thought of provisioning them, yet confiding in the strength of God, no further apprehension alarms me.

Whoever seeks from me permission to retire from the world will meet with cheerful acquiescence in his desires. If he has really withdrawn his heart from the world that deceives but fools, to dissuade him therefrom would be very reprehensible; but if he only affects it from ostentation, he will receive the requital thereof.

If in ailments of the body which are visible, its physicians have made and do make such errors of treatment, in the disorders of the soul which is invisible and its remedies scarce attainable, what medicine will avail?

It was the effect of the grace of God that I found no capable minister, otherwise people would have considered my measures had been devised by him.

On the day when the Almighty wills that my life should cease, I also would not further prolong it.

My constant prayer to the Supreme Giver is that when my thoughts and actions no longer please Him, he may take my life, in order that I may not every moment add to His displeasure.

The solution of difficulties depends on the assistance of God, and the evidence of the latter is the meeting with a discreet spiritual director. Many persons through not discovering such a one, have their real capabilities obscured.

(P. 235.) One night my heart was weary of the burden of life, when suddenly, between sleeping and waking, a strange vision appeared to me, and my spirit was somewhat comforted.

Whosoever with a sincere heart and in simplicity of mind follows my institutes will profit, both spiritually and temporarily, to the fulfilment of his wishes.

The source of misery is self-aggrandizement and unlawful desires.

The welfare of those who are privileged to confidential counsel at the court of great monarchs has been said to lie in rectitude and loyalty; no self-interest or mercenary motive should intervene; and especially in times of the royal displeasure, if no conciliatory language will avail, they should be silent.

A special grace proceeds from the sun in favour of kings, and for this reason they pray and consider it a worship of the Almighty; but the short-sighted are thereby scandalized.

How can the common people possessed only with the desire of gain, look with respect upon sordid men of wealth. From ignorance these fail in reverence to this fountain of light, and reproach him who prays to it. If their understanding were not at fault how could they forget the Súrah¹ beginning “By the sun,” &c.

The reason why the hair of the head turns grey first is because it comes before the beard and the whiskers.

I have heard no good reason from the Hindus for the sounding of the gong and blowing the conch at the time of worship. It must be for the purpose of warning and recollection.

When it rains, if light breaks from the west, the air will clear, for, radiance from the quarter whence darkness proceedeth is a harbinger of light.

The reason why under the Muḥammadan law an inheritance seldom passes to the daughter notwithstanding that her helplessness seems deserving of greater consideration, is that she passes to her husband's house and the legacy would go to a stranger.

The meat which is nearer the bone is sweeter because it contains the essence of the nutriment.

Fruit in a plentiful season is never so luscious and sweet, because the source of supply of these qualities is proportionately subdivided.

The tales of the ancients, that, in certain places of worship fire from heaven was present, were not credited, and it was held to be exaggeration, it not being known that a mirror or the sun-crystal¹ being held to the sun would produce fire.

For all kinds of animals there is a fixed breeding season. Man alone is constantly under the impulse of desire to that end. Indeed, by this providential multiplication of the species a greater stability is given to the bond of union upon which the foundation of social life depends.

(P. 236.) Eating anything that dies of itself is unlawful. There is a natural repugnance to it.

A man's being eaten after he has been killed is the just requital of his own baseness.²

The prohibition against touching anything killed by the act of God, the cause of which is unknown, is in order to respect the deed.

Blood contains the principle of life. To avoid eating thereof is to honour life.

The birth of ugliness from beauty is not surprising. Indeed, if a man were to beget a different kind of animal, it would not be extraordinary, for as a matter of fact forms are designed from concepts, and since these are capable of being imagined, their production may take place.

If the love of the husband prevail, he but idolises his own partialities and begets a daughter; if the wife has the stronger affection, the image of her husband is oftenest present, and a boy appears.

As to what is said in ethical treatises, that an enemy should not be despised, the meaning is that since friendship and enmity are but phantasms of the divine dispensation, one should overlook the intervening enemy and view the Deity beyond.

Many a disciple surpasses his master, and yet his attitude to him must be one of deference and submission.

Miracles occur in the temples of every creed. This is the product of mental enthusiasm, for the truth can be but with one.

A gift is the deposit of a pledge and a lightening of an obligation from a former debt.

The origin of wearing the sacred thread (in a Bráhman), is that in ancient times they used to pray with a rope round their necks, and their successors have made this a religious obligation.

In Hindustan no one has ever set himself up as a prophet. The reason is that pretensions to divinity have superseded it.

When any one is said to be of a good, or low origin, what is meant is, that one of his ancestors attained to spiritual or temporal distinction, or was known to fame from connection with some city or profession. It appears to me that good-breeding should involve good works.

It is said that greater friendship is shown by the receiver of a gift than by the giver;¹ but I consider that in the giver it is personal. He does not give but to a worthy object, and this can be evidenced in a receiver only by a gift.

(P. 237.) In Hindu treatises it is said that, in the acquisition of learning or of wealth, a man should so toil as though he were never to grow old, or to die.² But since the luxurious, from fear of these two sources of despair, withhold themselves from labour, it appears to me that in acquiring these twin needs of a worldly career, we should regard each morrow as our last, and postpone not the work of one day to the next.

The Hindu philosopher says that in the garnering of good works, one should have death constantly in view, and, placing no reliance on youth and life, never relax one's efforts. But to me it seems that in the pursuit of virtue, the idea of death should not be entertained, so that freed from hopes and fears, we should practise virtue for the sake of its own worth.

It is strange that in the time of our Prophet no commentaries on the Ḳurán were made, so that differences of interpretation might not afterwards arise.

(Regarding the saying), “the love of a cat is a part of religion,” if the noun of action is not in construction with the agent, as Mír Sayyid Sharíf put it to escape a difficulty, it would not be humane to avoid a cat or regard it with repugnance. The silence of Mauláná Saạdu'ddín from this (obvious) reply is, therefore, not to be defended.³

“What the ancients have said, viz., that the heaviest trials fall on the prophets, next upon the saints, and by proportionately diminishing degrees upon the virtuous, does not commend itself to me. How can the elect of God be thus punished?” Some of the philosophers suggested to his Majesty that these were trials sent by God. The king was amazed and said: “How can trials be justifiable by one who knows both what is hidden and what is manifest?”

Every sect favourably regards him who is faithful to its precepts and in truth he is to be commended. If he be engaged in worldly pursuits he should pass his days in righteousness and well-doing, and in the garnering the needs of the time; and if of a retired habit, he should live in warfare with himself and at peace with others, and regard praise and blame indifferently.

Some are of opinion that the greater the number of intermediaries between him that seeks the truth and him that has reached it, the more the grace of God abounds. But this is not so: rather the attainment thereto is dependent on attrahent grace and good works.

It is strange that the Imámís make beads of the earth of Karbalá, and believe that it is mixed with the blood of the Imám (Ḥusayn).

Whoever bestows his garments upon ignoble people, upon rope-dancers and buffoons, it is as though he went through their antics himself.

He alone whose knowledge is superior in degree to that of the author of a work should make selections therefrom, otherwise it is not a choice of passages but showing his own merit.

(P. 237.) The legend of Alexander's stratagem against Porus¹ does not carry the appearance of truth. A man thus raised to power by the Almighty does not act in this manner especially when he thinks his end drawing near.

One should write out a quatrain of Omar Khayyam, after reading an ode of Ḥáfiẓ, otherwise the latter is like drinking wine without a relish.

Men give the names of eminent men to their sons. Although it is done by way of good augury, it is not respectful. And what is most curious is that this is chiefly practised by theologians who do not believe in metempsychosis; while the Hindus who do, refrain from it.²

It is a remarkable thing that men should insist on the ceremony of circumcision for children who are otherwise excused from the burden of all religious obligations.

If the reason of the prohibition of swine (as food), be due to its vileness, lions and the like should be held lawful.

Burial of the dead is an ancient custom: otherwise why should a traveller on the road of annihilation bear a load. He should return as he came.

One day Ḳalíj Khán brought a register to His Majesty, and said, “I have named this the Khuláṣatu'l Mulk” (the Abstract of the Kingdom). His Majesty replied: “This name would more befit a province, a district, or a town: it should rather be called Ḥaḳíḳatu'l Mulk” (the Real State of the Kingdom). Ḳalíj Khán then represented his own capacity in affairs. Others who were present raised objections: During the discussion his knowledge of mathematics was questioned; on this he was silent, but introduced religion. His Majesty uttered the following verse:

“Hath earth so prospered 'neath thy care,
That heaven thy vigilance must share?”

On one occasion at a meeting for philosophical discussion, one of the poets in the assembly uttered the following couplet:

“The Messiah his friend, Khiẓr his guide, Joseph riding at his rein,
Oh! would that my sun might meet with this honour.”

His Majesty said “instead of ‘my sun’ if you read ‘my knight’, it would be more appropriate.” Discerning judges were loud in applause.

One day the following quatrain of Mulla Ṭálib Iṣfahání, in an elegy on Ḥakím Abu'l Fatḥ and congratulatory on the arrival of Ḥakím Humam,¹ was quoted in His Majesty's presence:—

“My brothers in their love what concord show!
This homeward comes ere that doth journeying go.
That went, and with him all my life he bore,
This comes, and coming doth that life restore.”

His Majesty remarked that the word was prosaic and it would better run, . The critics much approved.

(P. 239.) Solicitation is reprehensible from every man, especially from those who are disinterested and of lofty spirit for these defile not their hands save with necessities: therefore to solicit of them is to dishonour oneself and them.

Difference of capacity is the cause of the continuance of mankind.

The truth is such that where it reaches the ear it must penetrate the heart. Conviction is irresistible.

The severe illness of the young suggests the doctrine of metempsychosis.

What the divine books say, that great sinners in ancient times were changed into monkeys and boars, is credible.

If the idea were merely that souls were transfused into a few determinate shapes, this would be unworthy; but if the strange workings of destiny joined them to mineral, vegetable and animal life in serial progression till they were exalted to a high dignity, where would be the wonder?

Some of the ancients say that the punishment of each continues through various bodies, and that a body is thus prepared for the expiation of each period—this corroborates the above.

To light a candle is to commemorate the (rising of the) sun. To whomsoever the sun sets, what other remedy hath he but this.

The darkness of smoke is due to the absence of light and its own worthlessness.

When the time of death approaches, a certain sadness supervenes, and when it is at hand, a faintness also ensues. This, indeed, indicates that the gift and withdrawal of life are in the hands of God.

The ear is the sentinel of the voice. When the speaker becomes deaf he loses the need of speech.

Although thieving is worse than fornication when it is practised when the faculties are first developed and in old age, yet because the commission of the latter grave sin contaminates another as well as the doer thereof, it involves the greater guilt.

It is not right that a man should make his stomach the grave of animals.

The killing of an innocent man is a benevolence towards him, for it is committing him to the mercy of God.

The authority to kill should be his who can give life, and he who performs this duty at the command of right judgment, does so with reference to God.

(P. 240.) When an inheritance passes, while a daughter is alive, to the brother's child, it having been transmitted to the deceased from his father, there is justification, otherwise how can it be equitable?

A city may be defined to be a place where artisans of various kinds dwell, or a population of such an extent that a voice of average loudness will not carry at night beyond the inhabited limits.

A river is that which flows throughout the whole year.

Kingdoms are divided from each other by rivers, mountains, deserts or languages.

In cold climates such as Kábul and Kashmír guns should be made thicker than ordinary, so that dryness and cold may not crack them.

A moderate breeze differs relatively in reference to a mill or a ship, but what is commonly understood by this term is one of sufficient force to extinguish a lamp.

The interpretation of dreams belongs to the world of augury. For this reason it is established that none but a learned man of benevolent character should be entrusted to draw a good omen therefrom.

Rhetoric consists in the language being commensurate with the capacity of the hearer, and that a pregnant meaning shall be pithily expressed in a manner intelligible without difficulty. Eloquence requires the delivery to be accompanied with elegance of diction.

One moral may be drawn from the instances of the ruler of Egypt (Pharaoh),¹ and Ḥusayn Manṣúr (Ḥalláj), namely that presumptive regard of oneself and regard of God are essentially distinguished.

Dignity is the maintenance of one's station.

A wise man was asked the reason of the long life of the vulture and the short existence of the hawk. He replied, “The one injures no animal, and the other hunts them.

On this His Majesty remarked, “If the penalty to a hawk that lives only on animal life, be a brief span of existence, what shall happen to man who notwithstanding abundant provision of other kinds, does not restrain himself from meat?

Nevertheless, the thought that harmless animals are lawful and animals of prey forbidden food, is full of suggestion.

Learning to speak comes from association, otherwise men would remain inarticulate.

But when the experiment was tried it was shown through the instance of a dumb man, how, though silent in such a case, he might make himself understood by strangers.¹

(P. 241.) Whosoever imprecates upon another the vengeance of God will not be heard. It was this reflection that comforted a man who had been cursed by others.

Since I used nitre (for cooling water), I recognise the rights of salt (fidelity), in water also.²

When I came to India I was much attracted by the elephants, and I thought that the use of their extraordinary strength was a prognostication of my universal ascendancy.

Men are so accustomed to eating meat that were it not for the pain, they would undoubtedly fall to on themselves.

Would that my body were so vigorous as to be of service to eaters of meat who would thus forego other animal life, or that as I cut off a piece for their nourishment, it might be replaced by another.

Would that it were lawful to eat an elephant, so that one animal might avail for many.

Were it not for the thought of the difficulty of sustenance, I would prohibit men from eating meat. The reason why I do not altogether abandon it myself is, that many others might willingly forego it likewise and be thus cast into despondency.

From my earliest years, whenever I ordered animal food to be cooked for me, I found it rather tasteless and cared little for it. I took this feeling to indicate a necessity for protecting animals, and I refrained from animal food.

Men should annually refrain from eating meat on the anniversary of the month of my accession as a thanksgiving to the Almighty, in order that the year may pass in prosperity.

Butchers, fishermen and the like who have no other occupation but taking life, should have a separate quarter and their association with others should be prohibited by fine.

A merchant was approaching his end and his four sons were about to quarrel over his property. He directed them with due counsel, and told them that he had providently bequeathed them equal portions and had left these, one for each, in the four corners of his house, and that when he died they were to take their several shares. When his instructions were carried out, one found gold, another grain, and the other two paper and a bone respectively. Not comprehending this they began to make a disturbance. The King of Hindustan, Sáliváhana, thus interpreted it: “By the bone is meant that cattle should be demanded (by its holder) of the first, and by the paper, a money credit of the second.” When the whole was computed, the shares were thus found to be equal.

Ḥasan Sabbáḥ¹ was once on journey by sea with a numerous company. Suddenly a storm arose, and consternation seized the people. He himself was cheerful, and when questioned thereon, he announced to them that they would be saved. On reaching land all of them were assured that the future was revealed to him. In point of fact he was undisturbed through his assurance that the will of God could not be altered, and his announcement of the good tidings of their security was caused by this reflection, that if they were drowned no one could save them; had they thought otherwise they would have taken to (vain) supplication.

(P. 242.) Ali,¹ called also Kharwá, used to say that he had seen a person in Baliá² whose upper part consisted of two bodies, each possessing a head, eyes, and hands, with but a single body below. The man was married, and a jeweller by profession.

In the year that Bayram Khán received permission to depart for Ḥijáz,³ a hunting leopard killed a doe near Sikandrah; a live young one was taken from its stomach. I separated the flesh from the bone myself and gave the leopard its fill. In doing so something pricked my hand. I thought it was a piece of a bone. When carefully examined, an arrow-head was found in its liver. The doe must have been hit by an arrow when young, but by God's protection it had touched no vital part, and did not hinder the animal from waxing strong and becoming pregnant.

A mouse will take an egg in its paws and lie on its back, while the others seize him by the tail and drag him into his hole. It will also give a twist to its tail while inserting it into a bottle and draw out opium or whatever else may be inside. There are many such instances of their ingenuity.

If a wolf opens its mouth impelled by desire to seize its prey, it can do so. At other times it cannot open it however much it may wish.⁴ When captured it utters no sound.

The difference between mineral and vegetable matter⁵ lies in this, that the former is not soluble in water and the latter dissolves.

Once in a game preserve, a tame deer had a fight with a wild one. The latter was cleverly caught. Some of the spectators quoted the following line: “We have never seen any one who could overtake a deer by running.” The point was thus explained, that ahú “a deer” in Persian, means also “a defect,” and this is not (required to be) secured by pursuit and effort.

The marriage of a young child is displeasing to the Almighty, for the object which is intended is still remote, and there is proximate harm. In a religion which forbids the re-marriage of the widow, the hardship is grave.

Marriage between those who are not related is commendable in order that heterogeneity may become kinship, and between relations, the more remote the affinity the closer is the concord; and what has been recorded of the time of Adam, viz., that as sons and daughters were born to each, the son of one was given to the daughter of another, sustains this view.

As to the kinship between cousins being within the permitted degrees under the Muḥammadan law, this was established in the beginning and was analogous to (the custom in) the time of Adam's birth.¹

To seek more than one wife is to work one's own undoing. In case she were barren or bore no son, it might then be expedient (p. 243).

Had I been wise earlier, I would have taken no woman from my own kingdom into my seraglio, for my subjects are to me in the place of children.

The women of Hindustan rate their dear lives at a slender price.

It is an ancient custom in Hindustan for a woman to burn herself however unwilling she may be, on her husband's death and to give her priceless life with a cheerful countenance conceiving it to be a means of her husband's salvation.

It is a strange commentary on the magnanimity of men that they should seek their deliverance through the self-sacrifice of their wives.

A monarch is a pre-eminent cause of good. Upon his conduct depends the efficiency of any course of action. His gratitude to his Lord, therefore, should be shown in just government and due recognition of merit; that of his people, in obedience and praise.

The very sight of kings has been held to be a part of divine worship. They have been styled conventionally the shadow of God, and indeed to behold them is a means of calling to mind the Creator, and suggests the protection of the Almighty.

Sovereignty is a supreme blessing, for its advantages extend to multitudes, and the good works of such as have attained to true liberty of spirit also profit these.

A monarch should not himself undertake duties that may be performed by his subjects. The errors of others it is his part to remedy, but his own lapses who may correct?

Sovereignty consists in distinguishing degrees of circumstance and in meting out reward and punishment in proportion thereto.

This quality of appreciation adds dignity to the pursuit of happiness and is the chief source of success.

What is said of monarchs, that their coming brings security and peace, has the stamp of truth. When minerals and vegetables have their peculiar virtues, what wonder if the actions of a specially chosen man should operate for the security of his fellows.

(P. 244.) In the reciprocity of rule and obedience, the sanctions of hope and fear are necessary to the well-ordering of temporal government and the illumination of the interior recesses of the spirit; nevertheless a masterful will, never suffering the loss of self control under the dominance of passion, should weigh well and wisely the measure and occasion of each.

Whoever walks in the way of fear and hope, his temporal and spiritual affairs will prosper. Neglect of them will result in misfortune.

Idleness is the root of evils. The duty of one who seeketh his own welfare is to learn a profession and practise it. It is imperative in prefects never to be remiss in watchfulness.

The anger of a monarch like his bounty, is the source of national prosperity.

Tyranny is unlawful in everyone, especially in a sovereign who is the guardian of the world.

Divine worship in monarchs consists in their justice and good administration: the adoration of the elect is expressed in their mortification of body and spirit. All strife is caused by this, that men neglecting the necessities of their state, occupy themselves with extraneous concerns.

A king should abstain from four things: excessive devotion to hunting; incessant play; inebriety night and day; and constant intercourse with women.

Although hunting suggests analogies of state policy, nevertheless the first consideration is to be sparing in the destruction of life.

Falsehood is improper in all men, and most unseemly in monarchs. This order is termed the shadow of God, and a shadow should throw straight.

Prefects should be watchful to see that no one from covetousness transgresses¹ the limits of his own business.

Sháh Ṭahmásp, king of Persia, one night forgot a verse. His torch-bearer quoted it. He punished the speaker somewhat, and said, “When a menial takes to learning he does so at the expense of his duties.”

A king should not be familiar in mirth and amusement with his courtiers.

A monarch should be ever intent on conquest, otherwise his neighbours rise in arms against him.

The army should be exercised in warfare, lest from want of training they become self-indulgent.

A king should make a distinction in his watch over the goods, the lives, the honour and the religion of his subjects. If those who are led away by greed and passion will not be reclaimed by admonition, they must be chastised.

He who does not speak of monarchs for their virtues will assuredly fall to reproof or scandal in their regard.

The words of kings resemble pearls. They are not fit pendants to every ear.