A'in-i Akbarī - The Ain-i-Akbarī, Volume 3

The founder of this philosophical system was Kapila.¹ Some assert that the followers of this school do not believe in God. The fact is, however, that they do not affirm the existence of a creator, and creation is ascribed to Nature (Prakṛiti), and the world is said to be eternal. All that is veiled by non-existence is not believed to be non-existent¹ but the caused is absorbed in the cause, as a tortoise retracts its feet within its shell. They accept the doctrine of freedom of will in actions, and of hell, of heaven, and the recompenses of deeds. With regard to emancipation, they agree with the Mímáṃsá. Proof (pramáṇa), is of three kinds.² They do not believe in the soul (átman).³ Analogy and comparison are not accounted sources of knowledge, nor are time and space, substances, but caused by the motion of the sun. The word tattva (first principle) is used in their treatises for padártha, of which there are twenty-five, and these are comprised under four heads. 1. Prakṛiti (Nature), which is evolvent and not evolute. (2). Prakṛiti-vikṛiti (developments of Nature), evolvent and evolute; these are of seven kinds, viz., mahat (the great one, Buddhi or Intellect), ahankára (consciousness or egotism), and the five tanmátra (subtile elements). 3. Vikṛiti (modifications), are evolutes only, and are not more than sixteen, namely the eleven indriya—(five senses, five organs of action and manas) and the five gross elements (ether, air, light or fire, earth and water). (4). The fourth is neither Nature, nor modification, nor evolvent nor evolute, and is called Purusha,¹ that is Átman, the soul.

The first of the principles above-mentioned is primordial matter, , which is universal, indiscrete, and possessing the modes of goodness, passion and darkness. The fourth is viewed under two aspects, (a) the Supreme Being, as absolute existence and knowledge,² (b), the rational soul, omnipresent, eternal and multitudinous. By the union of the first and fourth, existence and non-existence come into being. Nature is said to be blind. It has not the power of vision nor of perception but only that of flux and reflux and the soul is regarded as a man without feet. When the two conjoin, the renewal and destruction of life³ come into successive operation. At the time of elemental dissolution, the three modes (of goodness, passion and darkness) are in equipoise. When the time of creation arrives, the mode of goodness preponderates, and Mahat (Intellect) is revealed, and this is considered the first emanation, and it is separate for every human creature. It is also called Buddhi, and is a substance, and the primary seat of eight states or qualities, viz., virtue, vice, knowledge, ignorance, absence of passion or passivity (virága), from which springs perception of the nothingness of worldly things, and indifference; avirága its opposite: aiśvarya, supernatural power acquired through austerities, and acts that seem incredible or impossible to human vision, of which eight kinds are given in the Pátañjala system: anaiśvarya its opposite. Four of the above positive states arise from the predominance of the mode of goodness and the other four from that of darkness. From Mahat (Intellect),¹ proceeds consciousness (ahankára). It is the principle of egotism and is the reference of every thing to self. In Mahat (intellect), when the mode, goodness predominates, it is called vaikṛita ahankára, modified consciousness. If under the influence of the mode, darkness, it is called bhútadi ahankára (source of elemental being). If passion is in the ascendant, it becomes taijasa ahankára or impellent consciousness. From the first kind of consciousness, the eleven organs proceed, six of sense (including manas) and five of action, as before described. From the second, the five tanmátra (subtile elements), sound, tangibility, colour or form, savour and odour. These are regarded in this system as subtile substances from which the five gross elements take their rise: from sound, ether; from tangibility, air; from form, fire; from savour, water, and from odour, earth.

From this exposition it is clear that the seven substances mentioned (intellect, consciousness, and the five subtile elements) are on the one hand evolvents, and on the other evolutes, and the sixteen, that is, the eleven organs and the five gross elements, are evolutes. The soul (átman) is considered neither evolvent nor evolute. The five senses are held to be organs of perception, and manas discriminates between advantage and detriment. Consciousness cognizes itself by act or the omission of act, and intellect determines one or the other. From the five gross elements, other productions are evolved, but as tattvas, are incapable of further creations, causality is not attributed to them

The elemental order of creation is sixfold:—(1). svarga-loka, the world above, in the constitution of which goodness prevails: (2). mṛityuloka, (world of death), the abode of men, in which foulness or passion predominates: pátála-loka, the world beneath, in which darkness is prevalent: devatá: (superior order of being) in which the element of goodness is predominant. Through their extraordinary power they can appear in divers shapes, and assume astonishing appearances, and from the transparency of their essence their true forms are invisible to the sight. There are eight orders of these:—(1). Bráhmya, blessed spirits, that inhabit the abode of Brahmá. (2). Prájápatya¹: Prajápati is the name of a great divinity to whom is assigned a sphere, and those that dwell therein are thus styled. (3). Aindra: Indra, is the regent of the heavens, to whom a sphere is likewise referrible, and its dwellers are thus denominated. (4). Paitra²: the belief of the Hindu sage is that each individual's progenitors that have died after a life of good works, will receive celestial shapes and enjoy their recompense in a special abode. The devatás therein, are called by this name. (5). Gándharva: this is said to be a sphere where the heavenly choristers reside. (6). Yáksha: in this sphere the Yakshas dwell; they are great ministering spirits, the guardian of the north. (7). Rákshasa, is a sphere inhabited by the Rákshasas, who are the malignant fiends of these orders and who slay men. (8). Piśácha: by this name an order of beings is defined who are characterized by an evil nature and perverted intelligence. They are less powerful than the Rákshasas, and are assigned a special sphere, and extraordinary legends are related of each of these orders.³

The Animal creation (tiryagyonya)¹ is one in which the mode rajas (passion or foulness), prevailed at its production and is of five kinds:— (1). paśu, domestic animals: (2). mṛiga, wild animals: (3). pakshí, birds: (4). sariśṛipa, creeping things applied to the different reptiles and fishes: (5). sthávara,² the vegetable kingdom. Mánushya,³ man, was produced through excess of the quality of passion. The general opinion adopts this division and belief. At the dissolution of the world, these creations perish with the five elements, and the elements are absorbed in the five tanmátras (rudimentary elements) which again are veiled in egotism (ahankára), and this in turn is absorbed in the secret recesses of mahat, intellect, which is (finally) lost in the pure depths of Prakṛiti (Nature).

Pain is of three kinds:—(1). ádhyátmika, intrinsic pain, both bodily and mental: (2). ádhidaivika, supernatural pain or calamity from a divine source, and (3). ádhibhautika, extrinsic pain arising from the natural source of the elements. Bandha, bondage, is the source of all that fetters the spirit and debars it from emancipation.

Prákṛitika signifies one who holds Nature (Prakṛiti), in place of God. Vaikṛitika⁴ is one who from ignorance assumes the eleven organs (of action and sense), (indriya) to be the Supreme Being. Dakshina (religious offerings or oblations in general) implies the being attached to the performance of works and believing them to be the ultimate aim of spirituality.

They affirm that he whose mind is concentrated upon one object (of contemplation) and the fruition¹ of the celestial abode, if the subject of his absorption be the first-mentioned and his thoughts be thus continuously applied in efficacious devotion, he attains to the enjoyment of bliss in the sphere above for a hundred thousand manvantaras,² after which he returns to this world; in the organs of sense and action (indriya), during ten manvantaras, in the elements during one hundred, in consciousness (ahankára), during one thousand, and in intellect (mahat), during ten thousand, he enjoys the fruition of heavenly delights; after which term he reverts to this earth.³ A manvantara is one and seventy enumerations of the four ages.⁴ For each good action a period of heavenly bliss is allotted: for instance, he who gives to a Brahman sufficient ground for the erection of a house, will be recompensed by ten kalpas in heaven, a kalpa being equivalent to four yugas. He who bestows a thousand cows in charity, passes one kroṛ and 14,000 kalpas in paradise, and after numerous alternations of earth and heaven, the severance between nature (Prakṛiti) and the soul (Purusha) is evolved before the vision, and right apprehension arises. This is the goal of emancipation and the renewal of embodiments ceases for ever.

This school also like that of the Vedánta, recognises two kinds of body, the liṇga saríra, or subtile frame, consisting of eighteen members, viz., the eleven organs of action and sense with manas, the five subtile elements, with intellect and consciousness. The other is the sthúla saríra or gross body, and death signifies the divulsion of the one from the other, the subtile frame continuing till final liberation.

The subjects of this system are treated in sixty tantras which like the term adhyáya¹ is used for division or chapter.

The first treats of the existence of Nature and the soul: the second describes Nature as one: the third, shows the distinction between the soul and Nature: the fourth, that there is no effect without a cause: the fifth that Nature exists as the root-evolvent of all other forms: the sixth, that all evolved action must be associated with one of three qualities; the seventh, that the separation of the soul from Nature is attained through perfect knowledge: the eighth, the association of these two with Ignorance: the ninth, that in the light of perfect knowledge when Nature ceases from alternations of embodiment, if for a time the elemental form should continue to endure, it is solely through the residuum² of ignorance otherwise it would also perish: the tenth, that causality lies in Nature and not in the soul, and it treats of the five states of the five afflictions (kleśa), viz., ignorance, egotism, desire, aversion and ardent attachment to life,³ as briefly alluded to in the Pátañjala school. Twenty-eight topics treat of the defect of the twenty-eight faculties of the eleven indriya, and the seventeen injuries of Intellect.⁴ Nine topics treat of the nine distinctions of acquiescence (tushṭi):—(1). Prakṛiti-tushṭi, (relating to matter), concentration of thought on Nature and contemplation thereof, in the belief that Nature will increase knowledge and sever the soul from itself: (2). Upádána-tushṭi (relating to means), the knowledge that Nature of itself will solve no difficulty, and that until the heart is detached from all objects, the end is not attainable: (3). Kálatushṭi, (relating to time), the notion that all desires are fulfilled by the passing a way of time, upon which therefore, the mind should be fixed while the heart is detached: (4). Bhágya-tushṭi (relating to fortune); in the knowledge that to the many the world passes away and effects nothing, to understand that the solution of difficulties rests with fortune and to turn thereunto freeing the mind from all other attachment: (5). Pára-tushṭi, withdrawal from all wordly unsubstantial pleasures in the assurance that thousands have sought them with pain and profited nothing thereby, and hence to abandon their pursuit: (6). Supára-tushṭi, to detach the heart from personal possessions, in the view that they have no stability, since tyrants may take them by force, and thieves may by cunning, steal. (7). Párápára-tushṭi, abstinence from pleasures of sense with the knowledge that even if followed by personal gratification, they must cease, and to such as these, attachment is vain:¹ (8). Anuttamámbhas-tushṭi detachment from all enjoyments, from consciousness of pain in their loss: (9). Uttamámbhastushṭi, detachment from pleasure with the motive of avoiding injury to others.²

Eight tantras or topics treat of the eight perfections (siddhi): (1). úha-siddhi (reasoning), without the necessity of reading to understand a subject by the light of reason: (2). śabda siddhi (oral instruction), without need of teaching, to understand by the mere hearing of the words: (3). adhyayana-siddhi (study), becoming wise by the perception of truths: (4). suhṛidprápti-siddhi, attaining knowledge by intercourse of friends: (5). dána-siddhi, (gift), serving one who accepts an invitation to a repast, or the bestowal of a gift on him, and manifesting a desire of knowledge and success in obtaining it.

The founder of this system was the sage Patañjali.¹

With regard to the predicaments and the nature of proof and other points, he follows the Sánkhya, but he acknowledges a Supreme Being whom he holds to be absolute existence and intelligence. The creation¹ of the five subtile elements (tanmátra), he believes to proceed directly from intellect (mahat) without the intermediate agency of ahaṇkára (consciousness.) From vaikṛita ahaṇkára (modified consciousness), when the mode of goodness prevails, the five external senses are produced, and from taijasa ahaṇkára,² (ardent consciousness), when the mode of passion is predominant, the five organs of action (karmendriya) arise, and from the combined influence of goodness and passion springs manas or mind. They believe that the subtile frame (súkshma saríra) is subject to extinction, but receives new birth when another body is produced until final liberation is accomplished. But this is not attained without Yoga which is the cardinal doctrine of this attractive system. The thinking principle, Chitta,³ is the substrate of manas. Vṛitti (function), is the action of manas in the acquisition of good and evil qualities. Nirodha (suppression) is the restraint of those functions in action and the attainment of quiescence.¹ Yoga or meditation is then secured when the foot of desire is obstructed from advance. Certain means to this end are laid down, and I here make a brief abstract in the hope that it may prove of value to the heart-stricken in the path of search. It is said that through the union with Mahat (Intellect) of manas and the three qualities, five conditions or states of the thinking principle arise which are called the five stages (bhúmi). These are, (1). kshipta, (restless activity),² the heart from the predominance of passion being never at rest: (2). múḍha (bewildered), from excess of darkness, being quiescent without attaining the object sought.³ (3). vikshipta (voluptuousness), from excess of the quality of goodness, the goal is reached and a certain repose is secured, but through excess of passion (rajas), this is not lasting, and the mind becomes dissipated; (4). Ekágra (concentration), through excess of goodness, power is obtained to keep the mind from wandering from the subject of meditation: (5). Niruddha (the suppressive state) is a condition in which by dissolution of the three qualities, the mental residua () of active volition are effaced and (those of) the quiescent or suppressive state arise.⁴

Under the first three conditions, Yoga or meditation, is rarely obtained. They assert that under the first condition manas is the recipient of unrighteousness: under the second, of ignorance; under the third, of sensuousness (avirága) and impotence (anaiśvarya); under the fourth, of virtue, (dharma), absence of passion (virága), and supernatural power (aiśvarya); and under the fifth, the residua of good and evil are suppressed and functions (vṛitti), are dissolved. These latter are of two kinds, klishṭi (painful), tendency to evil works, and aklishṭi, tendency to good works and each according to its good or evil tendency is five-fold. (1). Pramáṇa-vṛitti (right notion); perception of things by proof is attained through prevalence of sattva (goodness); (2). viparyaya, (mis-conception) arises from prevalence of goodness and darkness. If this abides in the person forming a definite conclusion it is called viparíti, (perverted) but if he be in uncertainty whether a thing be itself or some thing else, it is called sanśaya, doubt; (3). vikalpa (fancy)¹, ambiguity regarding a thing, arising from goodness and darkness: (4). nidrá (sleep), the state of sleep arising from excess of darkness in which consciousness is lost.² The opinion of other Hindu philosophers is that the mind is withdrawn from its peculiar association with the senses: (5). smṛiti (memory), is the recovery through the influence of goodness of what has passed from the mind. In the fourth state, the second, third and fourth functions cease and in the fifth, the first and fifth are dissolved and final liberation is attained.

Although this sublime contingency does not occur save by prosperous fortune and the divine favour, yet the sagacity of the experienced base its acquisition on twelve principles.

I. Meditation on the divinity (Iśvara-upásaná), that is, to illuminate the interior spirit by constant thought of God and to be conscious of its freedom from four things, afflictions, works, deserts, desires. Kleśa (affliction) signifies the sum of grief and pain, and this is five-fold, (1). avidyá, ignorance of the reality of things: (2). asmitá (egotism,) conceiving oneself to possess that which one has not: (3) rága, desire for one's own gratification: (4). dvesha, aversion, or anger; (5) abhiniveśa (ardent attachment to life), fear of death.¹ Karma (works), signifies merit and demerit (from works). Vipáka, (deserts), the recompense of actions. A´śaya, thought regarding merits and demerits which after effacement may recur.

Those who have reached the goal in this path, assert that assiduous meditation on God after this manner, annihilates all evil propensities and exterminates nine depredators of the road. These are (1). vyádhi sickness: (2). styána (langour), indisposition (of the thinking principle) to efficacious work: (3). sanśaya; doubt regarding the (practicable) means of meditation and its results: (4). pramáda (carelessness), forgetfulness of the duties of meditation: (5). álasya slothfulness in the performance of these duties: (6). avirati, (worldly mindedness), propensity (of the thinking principle) to enjoy the pleasures of the world: (7). bhránti-darśana, error in perception, (such as mistaking mother of pearl for silver): (8). alabdha-bhúmikatva, (non-attainment of any stage), the non-attainment of the fourth out of the five states: (9). anavasthitatva (instability), not abiding in the fourth stage and receding from it.

II. ´Sraddhá,² (inclination), zeal in following the Yoga and making it the sum of desire.

III. Vírya (energy), seeking the fulfilment of the object sought with much eagerness.

IV. Smṛiti (memory), retaining in view the transcendent advantages and great results of this devotion, and never relaxing attention.

V. Maitrí (friendliness), desiring the welfare of humanity.

VI. Karuṇá, (compassion), being distressed at the sorrows and affliction of mankind, and resolving to relieve them.

VII. Muditá, (gladness), being pleased in the happiness of others.

VIII. Upekshá, (indifference), avoiding the wrong-doer lest evil principles be acquired, and yet not entertaining malevolence nor rebuking him.³

IX. Samádhi, (meditation), unity of intention and contemplation of one object.

X. Prajṅná (discernment), allowing only understanding, rectitude, and the search after truth to enter the mind.

XI. Vairágya, (dispassion), is of various kinds, its ultimate stage being detachment from all, and contentment with only the Supreme Being.

XII. Abhyása (exercise), being unintermittingly assiduous in the control of knowledge and action till this (steadfastness) becomes habitual.¹

In the works on this system, Iśvara-upásaná, vairágya and abhyása are treated together: five separate expositions are allotted to vírya, śraddhá, smṛiti, samádhi and prajṅna, and the four following maitri, karuṇá, muditá and upekshá are likewise separately discussed. They have all been concurrently reviewed in this work.

In this field of philosophy, Yoga is regarded as two-fold, (1) samprajṅnáta-samádhi (conscious meditation), directing the easily distracted mind to one object and gradual concentration on the ideal conception of the Divine Being; and (2) asamprajṅnáta (unconscious meditation), in which this ideal conception of the divinity ceases, and absorption in unitive communion with its essence is obtained. The first is of three kinds, (I) Gráhya-samápatti (Tangible Forms), meditation on one of the five gross elements. With regard to the gross and subtile elements it is two-fold. The latter is termed vitarkánugati, (attendant argumentation) and the former vicháránugati, (attendant deliberation). Vitarkánugati is of two kinds; savitarka (argumentative meditation), when the cogitation is regarding the relation of words to their meanings, and nirvitarka (non-argumentative), when it is independent of this relation. Vicháránugati is cogitation on one of the eight principles, viz., nature, intellect, consciousness, and the five subtile elements. If the element be considered in its relation to time and space, it is called savichára (deliberative), and if otherwise nirvichára² (non-deliberative).

II. Grahaṇa-samápatti (Acceptance Form), is cogitation on one of the organs of sense which with reference to time, space, and cause is termed savitarka, and if in regard to the inherent meaning only, vitarka, and both kinds are called Sánanda (joyous).¹

III. Gṛihitri-samápatti (Form of the taker). In this stage the votary withdraws himself from all other pre-occupation, and is merged in the single contemplation of the Supreme Soul. This also in relation to time and space receives the two names above-mentioned, and both kinds are termed Asmitá (Egotism).

Asamprajṅnáta is two-fold:—(1). Bhavapratyaya (caused by the world), not distinguishing Nature from the soul, nor holding it to be separate from the elements or the organs of action and sense. If Nature is cognized as soul, this meditative state is called Prakṛitilaya (resolved into nature), and if the elements and organs be so cognized, it is termed videha, (unembodied). (2). Upáya-pratyaya (means of ascertainment); by good fortune and a happy destiny, under the guidance of the twelve principles above-mentioned, the cognition of the soul is attained and the fruition of bliss secured at the desired goal where final emancipation presents itself to view.

The devotees of the Yoga practice are of four classes. The first, called Práthama kalpika, (entering upon the course) is he who with firm resolve and steadfast foot enters upon this waste of mortification. The second, Madhubhúmika (in the honey-stage), is he who by mortification of the senses and right conduct, effaces rust from the mirror of the heart to such degree that he can divine the reflections in another's mind and see whatever from its minuteness is imperceptible to others. The third, Prajṅnájyotis (illuminated), by happy fortune and zealous endeavour subdues the organs of sense and the elements, and the far and the near, with reference to sight and hearing, &c., become relatively the same to him, and he acquires power to create and destroy. The fourth, Atikránta bhávaníya (attaining the highest dispassion), is one to whom the past becomes present.

It is said that conscious meditation consists of eight particulars and these are, as it were, intrinsic parts thereof, in contradistinction to the twelve principles which are accounted extrinsic means. They are called Ashṭánga-Yoga (meditation on eight particular parts of the body). These are:—(1). Yama, (2). Niyama, (3). A´sana, (4). Práṇáyáma, (5). Pratyáhára, (6). Dháraṇa, (7). Dhyána, (8). Samádhi.

Yama, restraint, is five-fold:—(1). Ahinśá (non-slaughter),¹ avoiding destruction of life and injury (to others). When this habit is formed, in a devotee, enemies are conciliated: (2). Satya (veracity) is the habitual practice of speaking the truth, and thus securing acceptance of his desires²: (3). Asteya, (non-theft), the non-appropriation of goods beyond what is customarily permitted: the keys of the world's treasures are entrusted to the observer of this principle: (4). Brahmacharya (continence), to abstain from women, by which means the ignorant will be able to light the lamp of knowledge from the inspired efficacy of his will. (5). Aparigraha (non-avarice), retaining nothing of worldly goods which, being regarded as the capital source of pain, should be abandoned and by this the future will be revealed.

Niyama (obligation), is also five-fold:—(1). ´Saucha (purification), internal and external³ purity, avoiding association with men, and acquiring self-control; (by this means) the mind is rendered essentially stainless, commendable desires bear fruit, and the fourth state is reached: (2). Santosha (contentedness), desisting from improper desires and being satisfied with the fulfilment of this excellent devotion. Happiness is thus obtained and worldly pleasures have no relish: (3). Tapas, (penance), mortification of the spirit and body and enduring heat, cold, hunger, thirst, and silence, until all five afflictions are effaced from the tablet of the mind. Through this practice the votary gains the faculty of seeing things distant, concealed or minute, and can assume any form at will. (4). Svádhyáya⁴ (sacred study), repetition of the names of the deity, and recounting his attributes and all that is conducive to liberation. If there is inability to read, then by the constant repetition of the word Oṃkára⁵, the deities and other celestial spirits associate with him and vouchsafe him their assistance. (5). I´śvara-praṇidhána (devotion to God), is absolute resignation to the will of God; by this means various faculties of knowledge are acquired and illumination regarding all the degrees of perfection is attained.

A´sana (posture), signifies sitting. The austere recluses of this temple of retirement, give the number of these as eighty-four, of which thirteen are esteemed the most efficacious, and each has a special mode and a separate name. Under their influence, cold, heat, hunger and thirst are little felt. Some learned Hindu authorities reckon the same uumber of sitting attitudes for those who are still attached to worldly concerns but of a different kind. The writer of these pages who has witnessed many of these postures, has gazed in astonishment, wondering how any human being could subject his muscles, tendons and bones in this manner to his will.¹

Práṇáyáma, regulation of the breath at will, is three-fold.—(1). Púraka (inspiration), drawing in the breath by the nose in the following manner: with the thumb of the right hand let the left nostril be closed and the breath slowly inspired by the right nostril. (2). Kumbhaka² (suspension), to retain the breath within and to make as long an inspiration as possible closing both nostrils with the thumb and little finger of the right hand. The ascetics of this country can so hold their breath that they will breathe but once in twelve years. (3). Rechaka (expiration), letting out the drawn breath, very gradually, with the thumb pressed below the right nostril and removing the little finger from the left nostril, suffering it to escape. In short, to inspire with the right and expire with the left nostril. These three functions constitute the Práṇáyáma. It is said that the breath extends as far as sixteen fingers from the nose, and some say twelve. By this operation the mind is quiescent, and perfect knowledge is obtained; but this is secured only through the assistance of an experienced master of this knowledge.

At this time the devotee should abstain from meat, hot spices and acid and saline food, and be content with a little milk and rice. He must also avoid the society of women lest his brain be distracted and melancholy ensue.

Pratyáhára (abstraction), is the withdrawal of the five senses from their respective objects of perception. When the mind is quiescent, these perforce cannot escape. Thus objects may present themselves before him without exciting desire.

Dhárana (steadiness), is the confinement of the thinking principle to one place, such as the navel, the crown of the head, between the eyebrows, the point of the nose, or the tip of the tongue.

Dhyána (contemplation), is uninterrupted reflection on what is before the mind, and the absence of every thing but the object, the thought, and the thinking principle of the individual contemplating.

Samádhi (meditation); in this the thinker and the consciousness of thought are both effaced. At this stage the degrees of conscious meditation are surmounted and unconscious meditation begins, till perfect knowledge is attained and Yoga is finally reached. This condition is called Samádhi.¹

The first and second of these eight processes are likened to the sowing of seed in a field: the third and fourth are as the commencement of growth: the fifth is the flower; the sixth, seventh and eighth are regarded as the stages of fructification.

The last-named three-fold acts are termed Sanyama.¹ At this period, the most extraordinary powers are witnessed in the adept which astonish the beholder.

The occult powers are termed Aiśvarya and are eight in number.

(1). Animá (molecularity), the power of minute disintegration so as to pass through the tissues of a diamond. (2). Mahimá (illimitability), capacity of prolongation so as to touch the moon. (3). Laghimá (tenuity), to possess such extreme levity as to ascend to the upper regions on a beam of light. (4). Garimá (gravity) to acquire illimitable ponderosity. In some works the word Prápti² (accessibility), is used for the fourth term, and signifies to reach to any point at will. (5). Prákámya (irresistible will), to sink into the earth and to rise up elsewhere as if in water. (6). I´śitva (sovereignty), the power of creating or destroying. (7). Vaśitva (subjugation), to command the elements and their products. (8). Kámávasáyítva (self control), the fulfilment of every wish.³

Although this language may seem incredible in the eyes of those affected by the taint of narrow custom, those who acknowledge the wonderful power of God will find in it no cause of astonishment.

The doctrines of this great system are comprised in one Adhyáya or section, divided into four charaṇa,⁴ (feet or) chapters. The first is an exposition of the nature of Yoga meditation. The second on the means of its acquirement. The third, on the wonders of the occult powers. The fourth on the liberation of the soul.

The founder of this wonderful system was Jina, called also Arhat¹ or Arhant. With regard to the Supreme Being, and the doctrines of voluntary actions, rewards, punishments, hell and heaven, they follow the Mímáṃsá and the Sánkhya. In Svar-loka twenty-six degrees are assigned to the last mentioned abode (heaven) in three groups of twelve, nine and five, in the highest of which dwell the most perfect among the chosen of God. Bodies are believed to be compounded of indivisible atoms. The four elements are composed of homogeneous atoms, and the substrate of each element is different. The world regarded in its atoms is eternal, but non-eternal in its form. Existence takes place on the union of five principles:— (1). Niyata (crude matter) potentiality of cause. (2). Kála, determinate time. (3). Svabháva inherent nature. (4). A´tmá the rational soul: (5). Púrvakṛita, the result of good and evil in former births. Some Ḥindu philosphers ascribe the creation to God, some to Time, and others to the results of actions, and others again to inherent nature (svabháva). Their belief is that the whole universe will not perish, but that some of every kind will survive from the whirlwind of non-existence whence creation will be renewed.

This sect allow only two predicaments:—Pramáṇa (proof) and Prameya (objects of thought). The first of these is two-fold:—(1) Pratyaksha, perception by the five external senses, and by the mind and the soul. The Nyáya, applies this term to the means by which perfect knowledge is obtained. (2). Paroksha (imperceptiblity), knowledge obtained not mediately through the senses.

Pratyaksha (perception) is two-fold. (I). Vyávahárika¹ (conventional, or practical): this is acquired by the five senses and manas, is employed in external affairs, and called mati-jṅnána (mind-knowledge). This is also two-fold, namely, that which () is apprehended through the five senses, and () apprehended through manas (mind), which this sect does not include among the five senses; and each of these two again is four-fold: (1). Avagraha, distinguishing from the type whether it be horse or man but not discerning the characteristics: (2). I´ha inquiring, as to whence the man, and from what country the horse: (3). Aváya arriving at a correct identification of the above: (4). Dhárana, recollecting the thing particularised and keeping it in mind. (II). Párámárthika (transcendental), knowledge that comes from the illumination of the rational soul and is profitable to emancipation. It is two-fold; viz. Vikala (defective), knowing some thing and not knowing some other: and Sakala, (entire), knowing all, called also Kevala-jṅnána (pure unalloyed knowledge.) Vikala is again subdivided into Avadhi-jṅnána (limited knowledge), knowledge of special objects which near or remote, are not differentiated;² and Manasparyáya-jṅnána, definite knowledge of another's thoughts and the laying bare of the secrets of the heart.¹

Paroksha (imperceptibitity) is five-fold. (1). Smaraṇa,² recollection of what is unseen. (2). Praty-abhijṅnána, knowledge derived from the witness of another. (3). Tarka, the knowledge of the mutual relation between subject and predicate. (4). Anumána, knowledge from inference, which is established in a series of ten terms, given in detail. (5). ´Sabda, the knowledge obtained from the narration of a speaker without partiality or affection, of clear understanding and true in speech.

Prameya (objects of thought) are six-fold and each is regarded as an eternal substance, and not an aggregate of a determinate measure of atoms; they are likewise held to be imperceptible to the eye and pervade all space. The first is the soul which is a subtile substance in which intelligence abides. It is to the body as the light of a lamp to a house and is believed to be the active agent, or passive recipient of good and evil. It is, of two kinds, Parátmá and Jivátmá. The first is restricted to the Supreme Being and is distinguished by four attributes. Ananta-jṅnána or analytic knowledge extending to the most minute atoms. Ananta-darśana or synthetic knowledge of things collectively. Ananta-vírya, infinite power. Ananta-sukha, infinite happiness.

They do not accept the doctrine of divine incarnations but believe that a man by virtue becomes omniscient, and his utterances in regard to the things appertaining to the spiritual and temporal life are the word of God, and such a one is termed Sákára-Paramesvara (Divinity in bodily form). In the six aras,³ of which mention has been made in a previous section, twenty-four such beings come into existence, and in the third and fourth, their earthly existence terminates.¹

The first being of this series was A´dinátha, and the last, Mahávíra. Each of them is named a Jina, and wonderful legends are told of them which will be briefly noted later on. The Supreme Being is called Nirguṇa Paramesvara, or the Deity without qualities.

Jivátmá (soul) is variously distinguished. It may be two-fold, viz., locomotive and immovable, as a man or a tree: or three-fold, as man, woman, hermaphrodite: or four-fold namely, forms of men, of vegetable life, of beings of heaven, and those of hell: or five-fold, possessing but one sense,² as the four elements and trees. And these also are of two kinds; (1). such as can be seen, (2). such as are too minute to be perceptible. Each of these (last) five possesses life and has the sense of touch. There are those that possess (at least) two senses,³ touch and taste, such as shell-fish, leeches &c. those with three, as the ant which has the additional sense of hearing: those of four, viz. flies and wasps which to the above three senses, add that of sight: those of five, mankind. There is a further division of soul into two kinds; those possessing an internal sense and such as are without it, as a leaf.⁴ The Nyáya school also hold this opinion. Since the first and fifth are of two kinds, animal life collectively does not exceed seven, and each may be classed under two heads: (1) Prajá-pati possessor of six powers, namely, of bodily form, of reception of food, of organs of sense, of the powers of speech of breathing, and the internal sense (manas): (2) Aprajá-pati, life which is incapable of these functions. All that possess but one sense, have four faculties, viz., capability of nourishment, assuming form, command of the organs of sense, inspiration and expiration of breath. All that possess two, three, four or five senses, without the internal sense, have five faculties, viz., the four former and that of speech. Those that possess the internal sense have six faculties.

They consider the conjunction in the soul of ten qualities, entitles it to be called living, otherwise it is dead; they are severally called práṇa,¹ viz., the five senses, the internal sense, faculty of speech, reception of form, inspiration of breath, duration of life. Those that possess five senses are of four classes. (1). Devatá (celestial spirit); (2). Manusha (man); (3). Náraki (inhabitant of the infernal regions); (4). Tiryagyoni (animal creation). The Devatá is formed of a subtile luminous substance by the volition of the Deity, without the process of birth. Their bodies are not of flesh and bone, nor defiled by impurities, and their breathings are redolent of fragrance. They suffer not from maladies, nor does age steal away the freshness of youth. Whatever they desire is fulfilled; they can assume a thousand shapes, and they move at four fingers' breadth above the surface of the earth. They are of four classes:—

1. Bhavana-pati. The Jainas believe the earth to consist of seven tiers superimposed one above the other. The earth inhabited by mankind includes a space of 180,000 yojanas. The intervening region between one thousand yojanas and as many below, is the location of the Bhavana-patis. They are of ten² orders, each governed by two rulers, one for the northern, the other for the southern region. The colour, appearance, raiment, food and modes of life of each are separate. Their duration of life extends between a minimum of ten thousand and a maximum of an ocean (ságara) of years, and this is considered the lowest order of all.

2. Vyantara. These inhabit a region extending between a thousand yojanas above and a hundred below, and they pass likewise into the sphere allotted to men. They are of sixteen orders, each governed by two rulers. Their age extends from ten thousand years to one palyopáma.¹

3. Jyotishka. Their location is seven hundred and ninety yojanas above the level the earth, and one hundred and ten yojanas is its eastern² limit. They consist of five orders (of luminaries), the first are stars: the second, suns throned at a distance of ten yojanas above the stars: the third are moons, eighty yojanas higher than the suns: the fourth, constellations of twenty-eight mansions: the fifth, planets at an altitude of four yojanas above the mansions, eighty-eight in number. Of these the five most important are Mercury, Venus, Jupiter, Mars and Saturn with an interval of three yojanas in altitude between them severally. The duration of life of each of the five, ranges between the eighth part of a palya at the lowest, to one palya and a hundred thousand years as an extreme limit.

4. Vaimánika. Their abode is the highest of all, and they are of two orders. The first, kalpupapanna, (existing age), dwell in twelve zones of heaven each with a special presiding deity, but four have (only) two regents. These ten principalities possess ten illustrious distinctions, (1) a just prince, (2) a capable minister, (3) a benevolent sage, (4) loyal counsellors, (5) sword bearers, (6) guards, (7) commanders of seven armies of elephants, horses, chariots, bulls, footmen,³ sword players and musicians, (8) administrators of state, (9) news reporters, and (10) sweepers. This sublime order is said to dwell at a little less than the distance of a ráju¹ in altitude. The second order is kalpátíta (past age). They do not occupy themselves with others, but keep aloof from friendship, enmity, governance and subjection, and are engaged only in contemplation of the Deity. Above these again are twelve abodes of rest in nine tiers,² one above another, and five others like a face, two above, and one below and one between, making fourteen tiers in all.

They consider the world to be composed of three spheres.³ (1). Manusha-loka, nine hundred yojanas from the lowest extremity of the earth to nine hundred above. This is the sphere of men. The earth is said to be one ráju in length and the same in breadth, and within 4,500,000 yojanas of this space, mankind dwell. Below this is (2). Patála-loka. Its extent is nine hundred yojanas less than seven rájus. The second is twice the size of the first, and to each tier is added a ráju so that the seventh is something less than seven rájus. (3). Svarga-loka is the celestial region, and is a little less than seven rájus high. Its inhabitants possess five organs of sense. Among them the Vaimánikas dwell in twenty-six orders which represent paradise. They attain to these bodies and enjoy happiness through good works. Eight orders of Vaimánikas dwell within five rájus, and four in the sixth ráju. Fourteen orders of the inferior class occupy one ráju. A ráju is the distance traversed by an iron ball of three and a half Akbari ser's weight, thrown downwards and continuing to fall for a period of six months six days and twelve ghaṛis. It is said that for six karoh above the twenty-six orders aforesaid, there is a circular area like crystal.¹ Its length is 4,500,000 yojanas and its breadth the same, with a height of eight yojanas. After traversing a distance of three and five-sixth of a Karoh upwards, the sacred haven of final liberation is reached where men are absorbed in the divinity as light in light.

The ages of the gods extend from something less than a palyopama to not more than a Ságara.² The four classes of deities including two orders of the Vaimániḳas have a stature of seven cubits; the third and fourth are of six cubits; the fifth and sixth, of five; the seventh and eighth, of four; from the ninth to the twelfth, of three: from the thirteenth to the twenty-first of two, and from the twenty-second to the twenty-sixth of one cubit, but all of them possess the power of assuming various shapes. All the deities are said to have the desire of food, but it is not taken by the mouth, as they are satisfied by mere volition. Each of the deities who arrives at the age of ten thousand years, requires food every other day, and breathes once during the time in which a healthy man would breath forty-nine times. Those whose age extends beyond this term to one Ságara, eat once between a minimum and maximum of three and nine days and breathe once between four and eighteen gharis. Those who live beyond the period of a Ságara, eat once after a thousand years, and breathe once in fifteen days. Such as live to a still greater term than this, for each Ságara, allow upwards of a thousand years to elapse before they touch food, and in the same proportion of time, increasing intervals of fifteen days pass before a breath is drawn. They also believe that all the deities including two orders of the fourth class, (the Vaimánika), have sexual intercourse after the manner of mankind, but pregnancy does not take place: the third and fourth orders by conjunction and the sense of touch: the fifth and sixth by sight, and the seventh and eighth, by hearing; four other orders, by mere effort of imagination, while fourteen orders of the second class are innocent of this intercourse. These are said to attain to this eminence by good works. Extraordinary legends are told of these beings, of which let this little from among much be a sufficiency.

The mundane (manushya), consists of (souls) of two kinds:—(1). Saṃjña, possessing the power of apprehension, and (2). Asaṃjña, without power of apprehension. The latter appear (as animalcula) in the flesh, blood and saliva of men and do not live more than the space of two ghaṛis. The Saṃjña class is sub-divided into two. The Jainas apportion the earth into two parts, and assign one to each division. In the first, commands and prohibitions are in full force, and happiness and misery are the recompense of good and evil actions. Fifteen considerable portions of the earth are allotted to this division.

The Jainas believe that during the six aras, the extent of which has been mentioned in a former section, twelve Chakravartís successively appear. Thirty-two thousand kingdoms are beneath his sway, and thirty-two thousand princes are subject to him. He possesses 8,400,000 elephants and as many horses and chariots. He has likewise fourteen thousand ministers of state, nine hundred and thirty millions of footmen, eighty thousand sages, three hundred thousand cuirassiers, five hundred thousand torch-bearers, thirty millions of musicians, sixty-four thousand wedded wives, one hundred and twenty-eight thousand female slaves, sixteen thousand mines of gems, nineteen thousand mines of gold and twenty-eight thousand of other minerals, sixteen thousand provinces of barbarians (mlechchhas), that is, of races foreign to his institutions, thirty-two thousand capital cities, sixteen thousand royal residencies, three hundred and sixty millions of cooks for the royal table,¹ and three hundred and sixty for his private service.² Many other endowments are attributed to him. The first cycle of these began with Rájá Bharata (Chakravarti), son of A´dinátha. Some of these on account of their good works, are translated to heaven while others go down to hell. They assert that nine other individuals are born, entitled Vásudevas, which is a rank possessing half the powers of a Chakravartí, and they believe that these dignitaries descend into a hell, and that Kṛishṇa is among their number. Nine other persons, designated Baladevas, are said to exist who possess half the powers of a Vásudeva.⁵ Over all these, the Tirthankara, who will be presently described, is the supreme head. Much has been written regarding the denizens of this sphere.

There is another extensive region, where its people have garments of the leaves of its trees¹ and their food is wild fruits or the sweet verdure produced by its soil. They are beautiful of countenance and pleasing in disposition. Their stature varies from one to three karoh, in height. One son or daughter is born to them after which they die. They are called Juglyah² and when they grow to adolescence, they marry, and their duration of life extends from one to three palyopama.

It is said that those who have not been charitable in deed, nor practised good works, pass after death among this race, and obtain the recompense thereof and bear no burden of pain.

The Nárakis, like the devatás, can assume various shapes and many of their conditions, but their aspect is terrible and always in dejection and gloom. In the six degrees in which hell is said to be divided, they are agitated in burning torment, and though in agony are ever maleficent and from innate wickedness torture each other.

The class called Bhavana-pati have ingress to three degrees of this sphere and are the ministers of chastisement to these fiends. The stature of the dwellers in the first degree is from three to thirty one cubits and six fingers, and their age between ten thousand years and one Ságara. The stature of those in the second degree is double that of the first, and this proportion of increase runs through the remaining degrees: the duration of life in the second degree is from one to three Ságaras. The age of the denizens of the third degree extends from a minimum of three Ságaras and attains to a maximum of seven: of the fourth, from seven to ten; of the fifth, to seventeen; of the sixth, to twenty-two; and of the seventh,³ to thirty-three.

Tiryagyoni signifies the rest of the animal creation and is three-fold:— (1). aquatic: (2). terrestrial: (3). aerial. The first named order is five-fold, viz., (1). acquatic animals like the Súśmár,¹ which resemble men, elephants and horses &c. (2). fishes of various kinds: (3). the tortoise: (4). the Karáh,² an animal in the shape of a tent-rope, four yards long and more, which twines itself round the legs of elephants and other animals and prevents their getting out of the water: (5). the crocodile.

The second order is of three kinds: quadrupeds like cattle: those that creep on their bellies, as snakes: and such as can move upon two feet like the weasel.

The third order is of four kinds: two domesticated with man, viz., whose pinions are of feathers, like the pigeon, or of skin, like the bat; and two others that fly in the blissful abodes of the gods, each of which is described with its peculiar characteristics, and many circumstances are related of them. The duration of life in the first class is from two ghaṛis³ to one púrva which is equal to seventy kṛors of lakhs and fifty-six thousand kṛors of years. (70,560,000,000,000). The second and third classes in their minimum are like the first, but the second does not extend beyond three palyopama, while the third has no determinate limit. They assert that the duration of age among such as have but one sense, if formed of the subtile elements, is two ghaṛis, and the gross body of the earth does not endure above twenty-two thousand years, nor that of water, above seven thousand; nor of fire, above three days, nor of wind, above three thousand years. Such as have two organs of sense live twelve years; such as possess three organs, forty-nine days, and four organs, six months. The animal creation possessing five organs of sense together with mankind have a life of three palyopama, while the Nárakis and devatás live thirty-three Ságaras but not beyond this term.

In the interchange of embodiment of these four⁴ classes, they allow twenty-four habitations to the soul which enters into air, fire, water, earth, the vegetable creation of two, three and four organs of sense, quadrupeds born of the womb, the ten classes of the infernal regions, the Bhavanapati, Vyantara, Jyotishka, Vaimánika, men and devatás. After death, it enters into one of the following five, viz., mankind, the animal creation with five organs of sense, water, earth, and vegetable forms. The souls of men may come and go through twenty-two forms and when they pass into air or fire, no more assume human shape. Hell-bodies may assume two forms, those of men or of animals with five senses born of the womb, and their lives like those of the Juglyah¹ class are not of any considerably length, nor do they ever enter paradise. Those of the seventh degree of hell, do not even enter human bodies, but each of the (other) three kinds of animals having five organs of sense, have entry and exit through all the twenty-four habitations.²

The arithmeticians of this sect apply the term laksha to one hundred thousand, which the vulgar pronounce lakh. Ten lakhs make a prayuta,³ and ten prayutas are termed a koṭi, called generally a kṛor. One hundred kṛors make an arba (Ṣansk-arbuda), and ten arba a kharba, and ten kharbas a nikharba,⁴ ten nikharbas, a mahá-saroja,⁵ called also padma. Ten padmas make a ´Sankha, ten ´Sankha, a Samudra, called also Korákor.

They state that if of a seven day's child of the Juglyah age, the hair, being four thousand and ninety-six times as thick as the hair of the Delhi people, be taken and cut up till further sub-division be impracticable, and a well, four kaṛoh in length, breadth and depth, be filled with such particles, and a single one of the aforesaid particles be taken out of the well at the expiry of each hundred years till the well be emptied, this period would constitute a palyopama. The lapse of ten Samudra of a palyopama constitutes a Ságara.

Having now discussed the first of the (six) objects classed under Prameya, I briefly mention the other five. The second, A´káśa, ether, is a subtile substance, eternal and all-pervading, possessing neither intelligence nor soul. The third, kála, time, is a substance like the preceding, but not all-pervading. It circumscribes the terrestrial abode of man. The fourth Pudgala⁶ (matter or substance), is four-fold. If not divisible (atomic), nor compounded with another body, it is called pramáṇa, and if in conjunction, pradeśa. When, several pradeśa unite, they are called deśa, and the conjunction of several deśas is termed śkandha.⁷ The first is accounted eternal and has five qualities, colour, odour, phlegm, and two out of eight opposite states of gravity or tenuity, rigidity or softness. heat or coldness, greediness or its contrary.¹ The fifth is Dharmástikáya, (the predicament virtue). It is a substance by the instrumentality of which, the rational soul and mind (manas), and matter (pudgala), are capable of movement, as a fish by means of water. The sixth is Adharmástikáya (the predicament vice). This is a substance, quiescent, and favourable to repose.² In some works there is mention of nine first principles called tattvas, viz., (1). Jíva,³ soul; (2). Ajíva, the contrary to this, as ether, time, &c. (3). Punya; (4). Pápa. By the conjunction of a multiplicity of matter and soul-forms, joy and sorrow, ease and pain are produced and this conjunction is termed karman (works), and is also distinguished as prakṛiti.⁴ All that is productive of virtue is called punya, and pápa is vice. Karman is eight-fold: (1).—Jṅnáná-varaṇiya (shrouding of knowledge), forms of matter that by their conjunction veil each of the five kinds of knowledge that have been noticed. (2). Darśana-varaṇíya (shrouding of study), shrouds apprehension by the five organs of sense. (3). Vedaníya (individual consciousness), conjunction of matter by means of which the soul is affected by joy or sorrow. (4). Mohanîya, (producing delusion), conjunction of atoms which causes good to be mistaken for evil and the reverse. (5). Áyus (age), conjunction of atoms on which depends the continuance of animal life. (6). Náman, (name), conjunction of things⁵ which is the creative complement of genus, species and individual existence. (7). Gotra (race), the conjunction of atoms by which the soul assumes the forms of eminent and ignoble persons. (8). Antaráya (interference), conjunction of atoms by which men abstain from works, are unable to take nourishment, have no inclination for sexual intercourse, take no profit in trade nor practise liberality or mortification.

V. A´srava¹ (flow, movement), evil actions of five kinds, viz bodily injury, falsehood, theft, incontinence, unbridled desire.

VI. Saṃvara (stopping), is abstention from the above five actions.

VII. Bandha (bondage), is the union of matter with soul.

VIII. Nirjará is the gradual disruption of conjoined atoms by the mortification of the body.²

IX. Moksha, called also mukti, is the total disseverance of atoms, which cannot be attained without knowledge and works. As when a firo takes place in the dwelling of a lame and a blind man, neither of them alone can escape, but the blind man may take the lame on his back, and by the vision of the one and the movement of the other they both may reach a place of safety.

It is said that without the concurrence of three conditions, this great end cannot be secured: (1). knowledge of the Supreme Being: (2). the acquisition of a guide who makes no distinction between praise and blame, wounding and healing: (3). constancy in good works. These three take rise in obedience and service, by which knowledge is gained. This latter is the chief source of a passionless state (virága) which annihilates the impulse (ásvara) of the embodied spirit, whence proceeds the closing (saṃvara) of the passage to such impulses, and this again incites men to austerity whereby they are occupied in the mortification of the spirit and the body. This mortification is of twelve kinds:—(1). not to eat at particular times. Formerly abstinence from solid food for a whole year was practised, and by some for nine months, but in these days six months is the longest duration: (2). to eat sparingly, and to beg for food from not more than five houses, and to fast till the next day if none be forthcoming, and to abstain from five things: viz., milk, curds, butter, oil of sesame and sweets¹: (3). mortification of the body in enduring the sun's heat: (4). to take rest on hot sand, (5). to endure nakedness in cold: (6). to draw up the arms and legs and sit on the haunches. They say that it requires a long time before these six practices can be successfully accomplished, and many fail in their performance.

Regarding the expiation of sins, strange penances are prescribed for each transgression, such as, obedience to the religious director; service of ascetics; reading of voluminous books; bowing the head in meditation. This latter must not be for less than two ghaṛis, and some among former devotees continued it for twelve years: to stand with the arms hanging down. and to refrain from movement. These six exercises quickly lead to perfection.

There are forty-five great texts among this sect, of which twelve are termed Angas, considered to be sacred books. (1). A´cháránga, rule of conduct for ascetics. (2). Sútrakṛitánga,² containing three hundred and sixty precepts of devotees and demonstrations of each. (3) Sthánánga, in which from one to ten (acts) essential to purity are enumerated, beginning with one, applicable to the upper and lower worlds, and so throughout the series to ten. (4). Samaváyánga; herein from ten to ten millions are enumerated and divers other truths. (5). Bhagavatyánga; this contains thirty-six thousand questions put by Gautama to Mahádeva¹ and the answers thereto. (6). Jṅnátádharmakathá, containing thirty-five million ancient legends. (7). Upásakadaśá, an account of ten devotees of Mahadeva.¹ (8). Antakṛiddaśá, on those who have attained the eternal beatitude of liberation. (9). Anuttaropapáti-kadaśánga,² on the blessed who for their good works have passed into the twenty-sixth degree of paradise. (10). Praśnavyákaraṇánga, mentions various works, the source of good and evil acts. (11). Vipákaśrutánga, former consequences of actions, which having borne the recompense of good and evil are forever laid to rest. (12). Chaudah-púrvánga (anga of fourteen Púrvas), containing questions that concern mankind generally, with various reflections and classes of acts.

The twenty-four Tírthankaras having in these deliverances revealed the will of the Supreme Being, their successors collected them and reduced them to writing. Twelve of them are termed Upángas, in which the purport of the former books has been concisely recorded with some additional matter. Four books are called Múla-Sútras, in which are given the usages of religious preceptors, the mode of begging, manner of life, mortification, worship of God and rules of composition. Six works are termed Chedda-grantha, on expiation of sin. Ten others are called Páinna,¹ explanation of the anatomy of the limbs, the manner of birth in animals, and all that takes place at the dissolution of elemental connection, and other subjects. Another work designated Nandi-Sútra, treats of the five kinds of knowledge, which have been already mentioned.

The devotees of this sect are called Yatis.² ´Sishya (disciple), is an inquirer who enters on this path. Ganeśa-śishya³ is an ascetic who for six months at a stretch restrains the inordinate spirit within the prison of freedom from desire. If he eats one day, he fasts two, and defiles not his hand with milk, curds, butter, oil nor sweets. He eats only of a little parched wheat thrown into hot water, and begs for alms only from one house; his nights are spent till morn in prayer, and five hundred times during each night he prostrates himself in worship, and in the day reads the book of Bhagavati.¹

The Pravartaka (founder), has much the same character, but on account of his zeal and experience is nominated by the chief religious authority of the time over the pilgrims in this desolate wilderness, to superintend their daily actions and appoint suitable penance for such as are indolent and inclined to ease. The Sthávira (elder), is an assistant to the preceding who controls the refractory and aids the languishing. The Ratnádhika, or Paṇíyása as he is also called, is zealous in the service of God wherever duty calls and thither speeds to remedy disorder: he also prepares the place for the A´chárya or spiritual teacher, and has the care of his garments and the settlement of disputes among the ascetics is committed to him. The Upádhyáya (sub-teacher), has nearly the same rank as an Áchárya, and the disciples verify under his direction the words of the sacred texts and the questions thereto appertaining. These teachers possess nothing of their own but the garments which will be particularised later. The A´chárya is a personage of a genial disposition, reverent of aspect, pleasant of speech, gráve, learned and benevolent. He must be acquainted with the proofs of the doctrines of his sect, and learned in the precepts of the other eight schools and skilled to refute them, and no treatise should be unknown to him. The burden of the care of his flock lies upon his shoulders, and to promote the welfare of his institute must be his chief aim. Garments and books that are in excess of ordinary requirements are in his keeping for supply at need to inquirers of this road. The Gaṇadhara by fullness of knowledge and good works arrives at an exalted degree of wisdom, and possesses the eight miraculous endowments mentioned in the Pátañjala system. He is the representative of the Jina. The Jina who is also called Tírthankara (creating a passage through the circuit of life), surpasses this dignity and attains omniscience, is beautiful of countenance, and perfect in the moral order. His breath is redolent with fragrance and his words full of wisdom. His flesh and blood are white, and none has ever seen him eat or defecate. Neither sickness nor sweat nor dirt contaminate his holy person. His nails and hair grow not long. His words fall so harmoniously that every listener might deem that his speech was music. In whatsoever land he resides, snakes, scorpions and other venomous reptiles disappear, neither excess nor deficiency in rainfall occurs, and war, pestilence and drought cease. When he moves abroad, the trees are voiceful in praise, and many ministering spirits attend to guard him. It is said that his beatified soul is imprisoned in the ventricular cavity of his form by a special connection, and in contradistinction to men in general, he is illumined by three kinds of apprehension, obtains cognition through the organs of sense and mind (manas) and the purport of all books is laid open to him. He discerns all that has form whether far or near, and after being born, and through the discipline of austerities, he becomes cognisant of the secret thoughts of men and arrives at the sublime degree of omniscience. These qualities belong to the whole twenty-four Tírthankaras of whom mention has been made.

The ascetics of this body have no intercourse with women, and avoid the spot where the sound of her voice is heard. They abstain from meat, fruit and sweemeats. They cook no food in their own dwellings, and at the meal-time of others, they approach a house and there stand and announce themselves by the words, “dharma lábha” that is, ‘he who doeth good, receiveth a reward,” and without importunity, take whatever of daily cooked food is brought. They may not take away¹ milk, oil and rice together for food, and without being covetous of the taste thereof must speedily swallow their meal. And they must not knowingly accept food cooked especially for them or for the sake of mendicants in general, nor which has been brought from out of a dark room, nor fetched by mounting from a low to an elevated place, nor for which the lock of a door has been opened nor brought out having been previously purchased.¹ They drink nothing but warm water and do not eat or drink² during the night. They never light a lamp nor have a fire in the house in which they dwell. They may not pick up any thing fallen nor wash any member of the body but that which is actually soiled. They must avoid avarice and anger, and abstain from falsehood, from injury to life and from theft, and may have no worldly goods, but only necessary raiment. This, in other than winter time, consists of three robes. One of these is used as a loin cloth, a second thrown over the shoulder like a belt and the third worn over the uncovered head.³ In winter a special woollen garment is added. They have also a cloth a little more than a span and a half in length and breadth which they keep folded in four. This is placed over the mouth when reading and the two ends are stuffed into the ears so that no insect may enter and be injured, nor the person nor the book be defiled by saliva. They also carry a Dharmadhvaja⁴ made of woollen hairs like a tassel, bound with scarlet cloth and fixed in a wooden handle. As they constantly sit on the ground, they first gently sweep it with both hands that nothing may remain beneath. The elders of this sect, who have been briefly mentioned, spread an old woollen cloth by way of carpet, and spend their days profitably in fasting and good works. Every six months they pull out the hairs of their head with their hands and nails, and go barefoot among thorns and stony places, but in the rainy season they do not stir abroad.⁵

The laity of this sect are called ´Srávaka. They observe, firstly, the following twelve rules. I. Never to injure the innocent. II. To avoid (the following) five kinds of untruths which are accounted great falsehoods; (1) false testimony, (2) breach of trust, (3) regarding land, (4) in praise and and blame of others, (5) concerning a cow. III. Not to stain their hands with dishonesty. IV. Not to look upon the wife of another. V. To be content with a moderate share of worldly goods. VI. To give the surplus in charity. VII. On journeys, to move stated distances. VII. To determine the daily need of food and other necessaries, and to live accordingly. IX. Not to approach a spot where a satí has taken place or a robber executed. X. To set apart two or three ghaṛis of the twenty-four hours, and with complete detachment of heart to employ these in devotion to the bountiful Creator. XI. At the hour of sleep to resolve on abstention from further food, and effacing the suggestions of desire, to lay down to rest. XII. On the 8th, 14th, 15th, and 1st day of the 1st quarter of the moon, to abstain from food and drink throughout the day, and to feed the first beggar (met with) on the morn of the break of fast. The points aforesaid should be gone over every day and at the time of rest, and the conscience be therein examined.

The claim of rectitude of life in this austere sect is applicable to a man who fulfils the following conditions:—He should constantly listen to the reading of the sacred texts, perform works of charity, make a practice of praising the virtuous, defile not his tongue in disparagement of another, especially of temporal rulers. He should take in wedlock one who is his equal, and be ever in fear of committing sin. He should conform to the laws of the land wherever he abides, and should so choose his dwelling that it be not public to every passer-by, nor yet so secluded that none can discover it, and it should not have more than two or three doors. He should choose good neighbours and associate only with the virtuous. He should be dutiful to his father and mother, and avoid a city or a province invaded by foreign troops. He must regulate his expenses in accordance with his income, and make his dress conform to the same standard. He must be assiduous in reading the divine books, and avoid an unrestrained spirit in the regulation of his life.¹ He must take his meals at stated times, and observe due measure in his regard for worldly wealth, and the getting thereof and attachment thereunto, and should be zealous in hospitality to a guest, an ascetic, and in the care of the sick. He should not be self-opiniated, nor a lover of his own speech. He must prize learning. He must not journey out of season, nor into a country where he cannot practise his religion, nor enter into a quarrel without discerning his ally from his enemy. He must sympathize with his kindred, and be provident and far-sighted, and recognize the claims of gratitude, and so bear himself in his outward conduct that men may hold him in regard. He must be modest, gentle and courteous in demeanour, and exert himself in the interests of others, and subduing his internal enemies, hold his five senses under the control of reason.

The prohibitions to be observed by both the ascetics and the laity are, to abstain from flesh-meat, wine, honey, butter, opium, snow, ice, hail, everything that grows beneath the earth, fruits whose names are unknown, or that contain small seeds, and from eating at night.

The Jaina institutes recognize two orders, the Svetambaras (clad in white), and Digambaras (sky-clad). The latter wear no clothes and go naked. According to the Digambaras, a woman cannot attain final liberation.¹ They say that when any one arrives at the sublime degree of mukti, he needs no food till he dies. They are at one with the Svetambaras on many points. The writer has met with no one who had personal knowledge of both orders and his account of the Digambaras has been written as it were in the dark, but having some acquaintance with the learned of the Svetambara order, who are also known as ´Sewra² he has been able to supply a tolerably full notice. From ancient times, throughout the extent of Hindustan, the Bráhmans and Jains have been the repositories of knowledge and ceremonial observance, but from shortsightedness have held each other in reproach. The Bráhmans worship Kṛishna as a deity, while the Jainas relegate him to service in hell. The Bráhmans deem it better to face a raging elephant or a ravening lion than to meet with one of this sect. His Majesty, however, in his earnest search after truth, has partially dispelled the darkness of the age by the light of universal toleration, and the numerous sectaries, relinquishing their mutual aversion, live in the happy accomplishment of a common harmony.

The founder of this rational system of faith is known as Buddha, and is called by many names.¹ One of these is ´Sákyamuni, vulgarly pronounced Shákmúni. It is their belief that by the efficacy of a life of charity, he attained to the highest summit of wisdom, and becoming omniscient, secured the treasure of final liberation His father was Rája Sudhodana, prince of Behár, and his mother's name was Máyá. He was born by way of the navel² and was surrounded by a brilliant light, and the earth trembled, and a stream of the water of the Ganges showered down upon him. At the same time he took seven steps, uttered some sublime words, and said, “This will be my last birth.” The astrologers foretold that on his attaining the age of twenty-nine years and seven days, he would become a mighty ruler, institute a new religion, and accomplish his final liberation. At the very time foretold, be renounced the world and retired into the desert. For a short period he lived at Benares, Rájgir,³ and other sacred places, and after many wanderings reached Kashmír.

Many of Hindu race, and from the coasts, and from Kashmír, Tibet and Scythia were converted by him. From the date of his death to the present time, which is the fortieth year of the Divine Era, two thousand nine hundred and sixty-two years have elapsed.¹ He possessed the gift of an efficacious will and the power of performing miracles. He lived one hundred and twenty years.² The learned among the Persians and Arabs, name the religious of this order Bhikshus;³ in Tibet they are styled Lámas. For a long time past scarce any trace of them has existed in Hindustan, but they are found in Pegu, Tenasserim and Tibet. The third time that the writer accompanied His Majesty to the delightful valley of Kashmír, he met with a few old men of this persuasion, but saw none among the learned, nor observed anything like what is described by Háfiz A´bru and Banákati. The Bráhmans regard him as the ninth avatára, but do not accept the doctrine commonly ascribed to him, and deny that he is their author.

They hold the Deity to be undefiled by incarnation, and with the Sánkhya, Mímáṃsá, and Jaina systems, do not consider him the author of creation. The world, they deem to be without beginning or end, and the whole universe to be at one moment resolved into nothingness, and at another created again as before.¹ They accept the doctrine of the recompense of good and evil deeds, and of hell and heaven, and knowledge, according to them, is a quality of the rational soul. The ascetics of this religion shave their heads, and wear garments of leather and red cloth.

They are frequent in their ablutions, and refuse nothing that is given them as food, and hold all that dies of itself as killed by the act of God, and therefore lawful. They hold no commerce with women, and kill nothing that has life, and looking on plants as possessing it, they refrain from digging them up or cutting them.

Their spiritual energies are directed to six objects: the repression of anger, the pursuit of wisdom, soliciting alms,¹ true understanding of the worship of the Supreme Being, fortitude in austerities, perpetual commune with God. Three things are affirmed by them to be the source of goodness: knowledge, disinterestedness, freedom from envy; and twelve seats the source of good and evil, viz., the five senses, their faculties,² the common sensory, and intellect. These twelve, they term A´yatana (seats).

There are four objects of thought which in place of padártha (categories), they call (chaturvidha) A´rya-satya, four sublime truths. The first is Duḥka-satya reality of misery, which is of five kinds. (1). Vijṅnána, (sensation). (2). Vedaná, consciousness, the recompense of good or evil. (3), Sanjñá, name or denomination of things. (4). Sanskára, (impression), aggregate of merit and demerit. Some assert that since all things are in a state of momentary flux and reflux of existence, the intellectual consciousness thereof is designated by this term. (5). Rúpa (form), comprehends the five elements, and their evolutes, and because all these five produce bodily sufferance, they are distinguished under this head.³

The second, Samudaya-Satya (progressive accumulation of evil), is all that arises from desire and anger, and which under its influence says, ‘I am,’ or, ‘that is mine.’

The third is Márga-satya (reality of means), the habit of thought that the world is in momentary annihilation and reproduction. The fourth is Nirodha-satya (reality of annihilation) which they call Mukti or final liberation. Ten conditions are necessary to attain this degree: (I). Charity. (II). Abstention from evil and practising virtue, that is, to refrain from the following ten actions, viz., taking life, molesting, taking that which is not given, incontinence, falsehood, speaking ill of the good, irascibility, idle speech, evil intention, intercourse prohibited by religious precept. Seven duties are to be fulfilled. Respect for the religious guide and spiritual director; veneration of idols; observing the service of others;¹ praise of the good; influencing to good works by gentle speech; perseverance through success or failure in sustaining others in virtue: learning the duties of worship. (III). To be neither elated nor depressed by praise or blame. (IV). To sit in a particular posture. (V). To introduce an idol into a temple which they call chaitya. (VI). To regard the things of the world as they really are. (VII). To be zealous in the seven practices of Yoga prescribed in the Pátañjala system. (VIII). To acquire the habit of five duties: viz., a true and firm acceptance of the commands of the religious director; to be mindful of them and to carry them out: to reduce the body and spirit by rigid austerities; to efface from the heart all external impression; to keep the mind fixed only on the Supreme Being. (IX). To strengthen the bonds of knowledge so that they cannot be broken. (X). To enter upon the knowledge by which final liberation is accomplished. Pramáṇa, proof, with this sect, consists of pratyaksha (perception), and átman² (self), and there are two causes of knowledge, evidence of the senses, and demonstration. The first is four-fold, viz., apprehension by the five senses, or perception by the common sensory or apprehension of the knowledge of the things themselves, or when by reason of the mortification³ of the senses, the non-apparent and the visible become identical.

In regard to inference and the exposition of the external percipibile⁴ their argumentation is lengthy and extremely subtile.

The Bauddhas are divided into four sects.

1. The Vaibháshikas, like the Nyáya school, believe in separate indivisible atoms for each of the four elements but perceptible by the eye; and with them existence is predicable of two entities, cognition and its objects, the latter being apprehended by the senses.

2. The Sautrántikas affirm that objects are cognised by inference.

3. The Yogácháras admit only intellect which produces the forms of objects.

The Mádhyamikas hold both cognition and objects to be void (śúnya Hindi sun) and confound existence and non-existence.¹

Many treatises have been written on each of these divisions and there is considerable variance of opinion on questions of objective and subjective existence. Three sciences are regarded by them as important; the science of proof: the science of administratiou: the science of the interior life.

Chárváka, after whom this school is named, was an unenlightened Bráhman. Its followers are called by the Bráhmans, Nástikas or Nihilists. They recognise no existence apart from the four elements, nor any source of perception save through the five organs of sense. They do not believe in a God nor in immaterial substances, and affirm faculty of thought to result from the equilibrium of the aggregate elements. Paradise, they regard as a state in which man lives as he chooses, free from the control of another, and hell the state in which he lives subject to another's rule. The whole end of man, they say, is comprised in four things: the amassing of wealth, women, fame and good deeds. They admit only of such sciences as tend to the promotion of external order, that is, a knowledge of just administration and benevolent government. They are somewhat analogous to the sophists in their views and have written many works in reproach of others, which rather serve as lasting memorials of their own ignorance.

Having taken a brief survey of the nine schools of philosophy existing in this country, I proceed to state some of the points on which the Bráhmans of the first six systems are agreed and thus brighten the interest of this exposition.

They say that he has attained the summit of knowledge who has garnered his stores of wisdom from this number of sciences and by fathoming their depths, satisfied the desire of his heart.

The first division consists of the Ṛig Veda: the second is the Yajur Veda: the third is the Sáma Veda; and the fourth, the Atharvan.

These four are considered to be divine books, as already mentioned. Each of them treats of four matters:—(1). Vidhi, precept and its cogency; (2). Arthaváda,¹ praise and its recompense; (3). Mantra, invocation and prayer which are profitable in particular cases; (4). Námadheya, appellation of important acts. Each of them also treats of three things:—(1). Karma, exterior works; (2). Upásaná, religious meditation; (3). Jṅnáná, perfected knowledge.

The fifth, the Puráṇas. Eighteen distinct works are styled by this name. They explain in a clear manner the difficulties occurring in the four Vedas above mentioned, and each of them treats of the following five subjects:— (1). The creation of the world. (2). The dissolution thereof. (3). Genealogies of various families. (4). Account of the fourteen Manvantaras. These are fourteen Manus or holy spirits who, during the whole life of Brahmá, will appear successively for the guidance of mankind, and sustain by their power the burden of the world. The life of each is seventy-one times the four ages, a revolution of the four ages being four million three hundred and twenty thousand years.¹ They likewise mention the fourteen Indras associated with them, (for they say that during Brahmá's life, fourteen deities will successively rule the celestial regions), and the actions by means of which they attain to this dignity. There are further the legendary narratives of celebrated monarchs.

The names of the Puráṇas are:—(1) Matsya. (2). Márkaṇḍa. (3). Bhavishya. (4). Bhágavata. (5). Brahma-vaivarta. (6). Brahmáṇḍa. (7). Brahma. (8). Váyu. (9). Vámana. (10). Vishṇu. (11). Váráha. (12). Agni. (13). Nárada. (14). Padma. (15). Linga. (16). Kúrma. (17). Skanda. (18). Garúḍa.²

There are eighteen other books called Upa-puráṇas, explanatory of the foregoing, which are said by some to be of recent origin.³ Their names are:—(1). Sanatkumára, originally Saura, so called from the name of its compiler. (2). Náradíya. This was also the name of a Puráṇa and the same may be said of some others. The Upa-puráṇas in fact, contain accounts not given in the Puráṇas, and they are styled by the designations of their originals. (2). Nárasinha. (3). ´Sivadharma. (4). Durvásasa. (5). Kápila. (6). Mánava. (7). ´Sáukara.⁴ (8). Auśanaśa. (9). Váruṇa. (10). Brahmáṇḍa. (11). Kálí and also Káliká. (12). Máheśvara. (13). Nánda. (14). ´Sámba. (15). A´ditya. (16) Páráśara. (17). Bhágavata. (18). Kúrma.

The sixth of the sciences is called Dharma-´Sástra, (institutes of the law) or doctrine relating to good works. This is also taken from the Vedas, and accompanied by a multiplicity of detail. It is also called Sṃriti,¹ and has a similar number of divisions. The principal subjects of these books are three. The duties of the four castes regarding religious worship, the duties of administration, and the expiation of sins.

The names of the eighteen codes of memorial law (smṛiti) are as follows:—

(1). Manu. (2). Yájṅnavalkya. (3). Atri. (4). Angiras. (5). Uśanas (6). Gautama. (7). Paráśara. (8). ´Sankha Likhita. (9). Vishṇu. (10). Háríta. (11). Vasishṭha. (12). Yama. (13). ´Sátátapa. (14). A´pastamba. (15). Kátyáyana. (16). Vṛihaspati. To these some have added the following two. (17). Vyása. (18). Daksha.²

The names of the eighteen Upa-smṛiti or minor law codes are—

(1). Angiras. (2). Jábáli. (3). Náchiketa. (4). Skanda. (5). Laugákshi. (6). Káśyapa. (7). Vyása. (8). Sanatkumára. (9). Shatrzu.³ (10). Janaka. (11). Vyághra. (12). Kátyáyana. (13). Játukarṇya. (14). Kapinjala. (15). Baudháyana. (16). Kaṇáda. (17). Viśvámitra. (18). Sumantu.

The seventh is ´Sikshá (Phonetics), the science of letters.¹

The eighth is Kalpa, ceremonial, a science which treats of ten kinds of duties from the beginning of marriage to the time when the son is invested with the Brahmanical thread; viz., the marriage; cohabitation: the third month from pregnancy to the fifth: the sixth to the eighth: the birth: the naming of the child: carrying him out to see the sun: feeding him: cutting his hair: investing him with the sacred thread. At each of these times special prayers and important ceremonies are required.

The ninth is Vyákaraṇa, the science of grammer and linguistic analysis, upon which are based the rules for the composition of letters. Firstly, they reckon fifty-two letters under three kinds. Fourteen are vowels (Svara) which are both letters and diacritical accents, and can be pronounced without extraneous adjunct: These are, a (): á (): i (): í (): u (): ú (): ṛi (): ṛí (): li (): lí (): (diphthongs) e (): ai (): o (): au (). Thirty-three letters are called Vyaṅnjana,² consonants which cannot be sounded without a vowel. These are k (): kh (): g (): gh (): ṅn () which is a letter having a nasal sound produced by the throat and nose, ch (): chh (): j (): jh (): ñ (): ṭ (): th (): ḍ (): ḍh (): ṇ (): t (): th (): d (): dh (): n (): p (): ph (): b (): bh (): m (): y (): r (): l (): v (): ś (): sh (): s (): h (). There are five other letters, one of which is called Anusvára, sounded like kaṇ with a quiescent nasal. Another is visarga (a surd breathing), like the final h in kah, A third is called jihvámúlíya, a letter between an h and a kh, and occurs as a medial and is sounded from the root of the tongue.³ The fourth is called gaja-kumbha kṛiti, a quiescent medial letter approximating in sound to a bhá. The fifth is ardhabinda, a quiescent nasal, like a suppressed nún ().¹

Such is the exposition of the Sanskrit alphabet as far as I have been able to transcribe it. Some points which it has been beyond my power adequately to explain I have but alluded to. The last five letters are employed with vowels and consonants alike, and each consonant is capable of being vocalized with the fourteen vowels. At the present day the fourteen vowels (svara) are called mátra² and two being commonly omitted,³ twelve only are employed. Each written letter is separate and unconnected with the next. Letters are of four kinds. If without a moveable vowel a letter is called (vyáṅnjana). If it be a simple short vowel or if it add one mátra to a quiescent long vowel, it is called hrasva.⁴ Twice the prosodial time of a short vowel is called dírgha, and if longer than two (i. e. three mátras) it is called pluta or prolated.

Eight modes of utterance are reckoned, viz., from the middle of the chest: the throat: the root of the tongue: between the teeth: the nose: the palate: the lip: and the crown of the head. There is considerable diversity of opinion in all that they discuss but I have chosen the most generally accepted view. Before the writer had gained any acquaintance with this language, he considered the grammatical structure of Arabic to be without a rival, but he is now more fully aware of the immense labours of Hindu philologists, and the powerful regulative influence of their system.

The tenth science is Nirukta, (etymology), a detailed commentary of Vedic texts.⁵

The eleventh Jyotisha¹ is on astronomy and its wonders.

The twelfth Chandas² is on metre and the classes of verse.

The last six are called Angas,³ that is to say that a knowledge of these six is necessary to the comprehension of the Vedas.

The thirteenth is the Mímáṃsá of which the three kinds have been already mentioned.

The fourteenth is the Nyáya which has been summarily treated among the sciences.

The fifteenth is the A´yur-veda, the science of anatomy, hygiene, nosology and therapeutics. It is taken from the first Veda.⁴

The sixteenth is Dhanur-veda, the science of archery and of the use of various other weapons, taken from the second Veda.¹

The seventeenth is Gíndharva-veda, the science of music, vocal, instrumental and practical, taken from the third or Sáma-veda.

The eighteenth is Artha-śástra, treating of the acquisition of wealth and its profitable employment.² These four are termed subordinate or Upa-vedas.

The arts and sciences cultivated throughout the extent of Hindustan are too numerous to mention, but somewhat of them shall be briefly reviewed as an acceptable offering to the curious, in the hope that it may prove interesting as well as an incentive to inquiry.

Or the ripening of actions.³ This is a system of knowledge of an amazing and extraordinary character, in which the learned of Hindustan concur without dissentient opinion. It reveals the particular class of actions performed in a former birth which have occasioned the events that befall men in this present life, and prescribes the special expiation of each sin, one by one. It is of four kinds.

THE FIRST KIND discloses the particular action which has brought a man into existence in one of the five classes into which mankind is divided, and the action which occasions the assumption of a male or female form. A Kshatriya who lives continently, will, in his next birth, be born a Bráhman. A Vaiśya who hazards his transient life to protect a Bráhman, will become a Kshatriya. A ´Súdra who lends money without interest and does not defile his tongue by demanding repayment, will be born a Vaiṣya. A Mlechchha who serves a Bráhman and eats food from his house till his death, will become a ´Súdra. A Bráhman who undertakes the profession of a Kshatriya will become a Kshatriya, and thus a Kshatriya will become a Vaiśya, and a Vaiśya a ´Súdra, and a ´Súdra a Mlechchha. Whosoever accepts in alms a Kṛishṇájina¹ or skin of the black antelope, or the bed on which a man has died, or a buffalo, or receives an alms in the shrine of Kurukshetra, will, in the next birth, from a man become a woman. Any woman or Mlechchha, who in the temple of Badari-Náráyaṇa² sees the form of Náráyaṇa, and worships him with certain incantations, will in the next birth, if a woman, become a man, and if a Mlechchha, a Bráhman. This shrine is in the hills north of Hardwár. They say that for any one who has not an accurately defined caste, the horoscope of the result of any particular action is taken, and the place of Mars is observed. Whatever may be its position, the dominus domûs shows the caste of the inquirer, and the dominant of the seventh house of Mars shows the caste of the inquirer in his former birth. If Venus and Jupiter, his caste is Bráhman: if the sun and Mars, a Kshatriya: if the moon, a Vaiśya: if Saturn, a ´Súdra: if the head and tail of the Dragon, a Mlechchha.³

THE SECOND KIND shows the strange effects of actions on health of body and in the production of manifold diseases. Physicians attribute these to constitution, but this science to the results of former conduct. Hindu philosophers class diseases under three heads:—(1). Those that can be cured by medicinal treatment; (2). Those that are removable by observing the following courses of procedure; (3). Those that require the application of both. To diagnose each of these, certain symptoms are recognised which are classed under three states, viz., (1). actions deliberately committed in a state of wakefulness; (2). such as are unconsciously done in that condition;¹ (3). and those that are effected during sleep. In the first, the sickness is incapable of remedy; in the second a remedy can be applied; in the third case, medicinal treatment to some extent restores health, but there is liability to relapse. Disorders of the heart, they consider, as originating in intention, and those of the body from inadvertency and error. Volumes have been written on this subject and the advice of physicians disregarded as unprofitable. Some of these causes of sickness are here set down for purposes of illustration.

HEADACHE is caused by former violent language used to father or mother. The remedy is to make the images of Kaśyapa² and Aditi of two tolahs of gold and give them to the poor. The first of these two is regarded as the father of the Devatás, and the latter as the mother.

MADNESS is the punishment of disobedience to father and mother. The cure is to perform the Chándráyaṇa,³ which is to eat one mouthful on the first day, and to increase the food daily by the same quantity for one month, and then to decrease in the same measure till one mouthful is again reached, and to make two images as above of two tolahs of gold and bestow them in alms with one cow.

EPILEPSY results from having administered poison to another at the command of a superior. The cure consists of these two images, a cow, a piece of land and thirty-two sers of sesame-seed, with a repetition of some incantations in the name of Mahádeva.

PAIN IN THE EYES arises from having looked upon another's wife. The cure is Chándráyaṇa.

BLINDNESS is the punishment of a matricide which is followed by many years of suffering in hell. The cure is Prájápatya,¹ which is of five kinds:—(1). Bestowing a cow in charity; (2). Or one tolah of gold; (3). Or feeding twelve Bráhmans; (4). Or throwing into the fire ten thousand times a mixture of sesame-seed, butter, honey and sugar; (4). Or walking a yojana, bare foot to a shrine. Let one or several of these be done in charity thirty times. Or let him make a boat of four tolahs of gold, the mast of silver, and six paddles of copper. Or, if it be a punishment of disobedience to father and mother, the cure is, as already described, the images of Kaśyapa and Aditi. These should not be of less than two tolahs.

DUMBNESS is the consequence of killing a sister. The cure is to bestow in charity a cow made of four tolahs of gold, its horns being of two tolahs of silver, its hump of two or three máshas of copper with a brass vessel for milk, and for seven days he should eat a mixture of curds, butter, urine and cowdung.

COLIC results from having eaten with an impious person or a liar. The cure is to fast for three days, and to give twelve tolahs of silver in charity.

STONE IN THE BLADDER² is the punishment of incest with a step-mother. The cure is Madhu-dhenu (honey-milch cow). Let it be supposed that a milch-cow of honey is formed thus:—Fourteen vessels full of honey, each of which shall contain a man and a quarter, must be placed with one tolah of gold in front to represent the mouth; four sers of sugarcandy must represent her tongue; thirty-two sers of fruit, her teeth; pearls for the two eyes; and two sticks of lignum aloes for her horns; two plantains stand for her two ears; and barley-flour for her teats, with three sticks of sugar-cane for each leg. A white woollen cloth is thrown over the vessels to represent her hide, and Dába,¹ which is a particular kind of grass, is strewn above it. The hoofs are to be of silver, the hump of a ser and a quarter of copper: the tail of silk, thirty fingers in length, with skeins² of silk eleven fingers long hanging therefrom. Two pieces of red cloth must be thrown over her neck, and seven heaps of grain, each of two sers weight, must be made, and a brass vessel placed in front, and another vessel full of honey set near to represent her calf, and a copper³ vessel filled with sesame-seed. Next, certain incantations are made, and prayers are said, and alms given.

LAMENESS is the result of having kicked a Bráhman. The cure is to bestow in charity a horse made of a tolah of gold, and to feed one hundred and eight Bráhmans.

FEVER arises from killing an innocent Kshatriya. The cure: thirteen Bráhmans should read incantations in the name of Mahádeva one hundred times, and sprinkle water over his image.

CONSUMPTION is the punishment of killing a Bráhman. A lotus flower of four tolahs weight of gold should be made, and the ceremony of the Homa⁴ performed and alms given to righteous Bráhmans.

TUMOUR is caused by killing a wife without fault on her part. The cure is to spread a black antelope-skin (Kṛishṇájina) and place thereon a heap of sesame-seed and a hundred tolahs or more of gold, and read incantations and perform the Homa oblation. But the acceptance of such an offering is considered blameable.

ASTHMA results from having accepted of this oblation, or of one of the sixteen great offerings, or of an alms at Kurukshetra. The cure is to take a buffalo of iron, with hoofs and horns of lead, and to make a sectarial mark of stone on its forehead, garland it with flowers of the Kaṇer (Nerium odorum), and place upon it a black blanket and four tolahs of gold, and three man and a half of pulse (Másh, Phaseolus mungo). The performer must have a sectarial mark drawn upon his forehead with the finger. The accepter of this charity is not well regarded.

DYSENTERY is the punishment for robbing a house. The cure is to give in alms a house and its necessary furniture, and seven kinds of grain, thirty-two sers of each kind, a handmill, a pestle and mortar, a repository for drinking water, a kitchen-hearth, a broom, a cow, and money according to means.

THE THIRD KIND indicates the class of actions which have caused sterility and names suitable remedies.

A WOMAN whose husband dies before her, was in a former birth of a great family and followed a stranger and on his death consigned herself to the flames. The cure is self-martyrdom by austerities, or suicide by throwing herself into snow.

A WOMAN who does not menstruate, in a former existence while in her courses, roughly drove away the children of her neighbours who had come as usual to play at her house. The cure is to fill an earthen vessel with water from a hundred wells, and to throw therein a betel-nut and one másha of gold, anoint it with perfumes and give it to a Bráhman. She should also give five, seven, nine or eleven kinds of fruit to children to eat.

STERILITY¹ is occasioned by a man or woman in a former birth having sold the children of other people, or the young of an oviparous animal, or reproached others for barrenness. Cure: the man and woman should enter the water at the meeting of two streams, wrapped in a single sheet, and bathe, and reciting certain incantations, pray to Mahádeva and give one mohur each to eleven Bráhmans, and a cow in alms on certain conditions, and make two images of Kaśyapa and Aditi of two tolahs of gold each, and making an image of Vishṇu in his dwarf incarnation (Vámana), bestow it in charity. And they should also fill eight winnowing-baskets with seven kinds of grain, and lay upon it a cloth and cocoanuts and various kinds of fruit, with flowers of saffron, and sandal-wood, and give each of these to a virtuous woman, and hear the recital of the Harivanśa,² which is the conclusion of the Mahábhárata.

A WOMAN whose son dies shortly after his birth is thus punished for having in a former birth followed a common practice in Hindustan of exposing any child to die that is born when the moon is in the lunar station called Múla ( Scorpionis) or Aślesha ( 1 and 2 Cancri) or near the end of Jyeshṭhá ( Scorpionis, Antares), and a birth is especially a matter of reproach in Múla. The cure is to make a cow of four tolahs of gold, its hoofs of a tolah of silver, jewels for her tail, brass bells on her neck, a calf of a tolah of gold, its hoofs being of half a tolah of silver.

A WOMAN who gives birth to only daughters is thus punished for having contemptuously regarded her husband from pride. The cure is to plate the horns of a white cow with four tolahs of gold and burnish its hoofs with four tolahs of silver, and make a hump of one ser and a quarter of copper and a vessel of two sers and a half of brass, and bestow this in charity. One hundred Bráhmans should also be fed and she should fashion a figure of the deity of ten máshas and two surkhs¹ of gold, and reciting incantations, give alms and feed fifty Bráhmans.

A WOMAN who has had but one son, is punished for having taken away a calf from its dam. Cure: let her giveaway a fine milch-cow with ten tolahs of gold.

A WOMAN who has given birth to a son that dies and to a daughter that lives, has, in her former existence, taken animal life. Some say that she had killed goats.² The cure is the fast of the Chándráyaṇa, a cow given in charity and the feeding of twelve Bráhmans.

A WOMAN who has continued in a state of pregnancy for sixteen years, has in a former birth been burnt when pregnant; the cure is an alms of Hiraṇya-garbha.³

BEING A MAID-SERVANT is the punishment for having in a former existence, from ignorance, had criminal intimacy with the husband of another and been burnt for his sake. The cure is, if she be in the house of a ´Súdra, to convey her to the house of a Vaiśya, and thus by gradation of caste to a Bráhman's, where she should remain in service till her death.

In order to discover whether these punishments are for the deeds of the man or the woman, they should both take the horoscopes of the results of particular actions. If in the horoscope, either the fifth or eleventh (mansion), shows the ascendens to be the Sun, Mars, or Saturn or the head or tail of the Dragon (ascending or descending node), and these affect the character of the woman (as based on the three modes of goodness, passion and darkness) which is considered under the influence of Saturn, the punishment is reckoned to be that of the woman, otherwise it appertains to the man. If in both mansions, the results apply to both.¹

THE FOURTH KIND treats of riches and poverty, and the like. Whoever distributes alms at auspicious times, as during eclipses of the moon and sun, will become rich and bountiful (in his next existence). Whoso at these times, visits any place of pilgrimage, especially Ilahábás (Allahabad), and there dies, will possess great wealth, but will be avaricious and of a surly disposition. Whosoever when hungry and with food before him, hears the supplication of a poor man and bestows it all upon him, will be rich and liberal. But whosoever has been deprived of these three opportunities, will be empty-handed and poor in his present life. The cure is to fulfil scrupulously the duties of his state to whichsoever of the five classes he belongs, and also at Kurukshetra, in times of eclipse of the moon and sun, to bury in the ground a piece of gold, if it be but one másha, as an oblation.

Works have been written on each of these four kinds, detailing the causes, symptoms, and remedies of these actions. I have but adduced a little as an exemplar of much by way of illusration.

Is the extraordinary science of predicting events by observing the manner in which breath issues from the nostrils. The expiration of breath from the nostrils is in three ways. The first is when it comes principally from the left nostril, and this they ascribe to the influence of the moon. It is then called Iḍá (vital spirit), or Chandra-náḍi.¹ The second is chiefly from the right nostril, and is called Pingala (sun, or fire) and Súrya-náḍi. The third is when the breath issues from the nostrils equally, which is styled Sushumná and also Sambhú-náḍi. This is attributed to the influence of Mahádeva.

Experts in this science distinguish the excess or even breathings by placing the thumb beneath the nostril. Two and a half ghaṛis is the time usually allotted to the two former kinds. The third occupies the time taken to pronounce a long vowel (guru), that is, a prolated vowel, as in má, thirty-six times. From the first tithi called pariwá² to the third tithi, the order of breathing is the Chandra-náḍi, followed by the Súryanáḍi for the same period, and, so on, alternately, to the end of the month. Some authorities regulate the order by weeks, allotting Sunday, Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday to the Súrya-náḍi, and Monday, Wednesday and Friday to the Chandra-náḍi: others, according to the sun's course through the Zodiacal signs, beginning with Aries for the Súrya-náḍi breathings, Taurus for Chandra-náḍi, and so alternately through the signs to the close of the year. Others again take the retardation of the moon in the Zodiacal signs in the same manner. All are however agreed that irregularity in the prescribed order is productive of temporal misfortune. If the intermission continue for two or three days, quarrels will ensue; if for ten days, a misfortune will befall the wife; if for fifteen days, a severe illness will disturb the happiness of the house. Should it last for a month, the brother will die. If the Súrya-náḍi breathings are in excess for one day and night, the man will die after the expiration of a year. If this anomaly continues for two and three days at a time, he will live a year for every day after the close of the year, according to the number of days. But if it continue for one month, he will die in a month. If the excess of the Chandra-náḍi be a day and night, the man will fall ill after the expiration of the year, and in the same way, according to the number of days, after the close of the year, his sickness will continue. If the irregularity last for one month continuously, he will be ruined in estate. If the excess of Sushumná continues for ten days, the man will die at the entry of the sun into Aries. If Chandra-náḍi last this period, perturbation of mind and sickness will ensue. If Chandra-náḍi continues in operation throughout sixteen days after the entry of the Sun into Aries, symptoms of sickness will supervene. When the Sun is in Scorpio, if Chandra-náḍi continues in operation for two or five days, the man will die in eighteen years, but if the Sun be in Virgo, in fifteen years. All are agreed that if at sun-rise, either Súrya-náḍi or Chandra-náḍi be operative, and the reverse of either at its setting, good fortune will result, otherwise a calamity will ensue, and if the Chandra-náḍi breathing be reversed in four ghaṛis, it is a sign of the occurrence of fortunate events.

According to the varied conditions of hours, days, Zodiacal signs, planetary movements, and manner of breathing in the three ways, divers events attended with joy or sorrow and other circumstances may be predicted. The Súrya-náḍi and Chandra-náḍi are each five-fold, and each division is named after one of the five elements. In two ghaṛis and a half, twenty pals are allotted to air; thirty pals to fire; forty pals to water; fifty pals to earth; and ten to ether.¹ Some however give five pals to ether, ten to air, fifteen to fire, twenty to water, and twenty-five to earth, which are altogether equal to a ghaṛi and a quarter. When this revolution is completed, the recurring series begins with earth, followed by water, fire, air and ether. Some suppose one ghaṛi to be allotted severally to the elements of earth, water, fire, air and ether, and each element is distinguished by the manner of the breathing. If it rise upwards, it appertains to the element of fire; if laterally and not beyond the measure of four fingers' breadth, to that of air; if it descend, to that of water, its motion being sensible at a distance of twelve fingers. If the impulse be on a level with the nostril, neither upwards nor downwards, nor high nor low, and extending to a distance of eight fingers, it belongs to ether.

In what relates to the particular conditions affecting human actions, this science also furnishes information. Repose betokens the elemental influence of earth; love of sensual pleasures and interior coldness signifies that of water; anger and the conditions that dispose the good inclinations of men to evil are the result of the fiery influence; and that of ether produces states of divine contemplation, and the emptying of the interior soul of extraneous affections.

They also erect a gnomon on a level surface of ground, and take the extent of its shadow according to determinate finger-measures, counting the length of one finger for Sunday, two for Monday, and so on, up to seven fingers for Saturday. To this they add twelve more and divide the whole into five parts. If no digit-index is left, it is ascribed to ether; if one, to air; if two, to fire; if three, to water; and if four, to earth.

Another practice is to insert the two thumbs in the orifices of the ears, and to close the mouth with the little and fourth fingers of each hand, while the middle fingers press each nostril, and the corners of the eyes are drawn down by the fore-fingers, and the glance is directed between the brows. A spherule then becomes visible. If it have a quadrangular shape, and as if liquescent, it appertains to the element of earth; if it be the shape of a half-moon, and incline to white and appear hard and cold, it is of water; if it be round, bright, hard and black, and variously spotted, it is thought to belong to the element of air; if triangular and luminous, to that of fire, and if no spherule be visible, it is the effect of ether.

Imparting instruction, donations, visiting religious teachers and guides, repairing to the presence of idols, entering a city or house, and other particulars of movement and change of place, and (according to one opinion), undertaking a journey into a foreign country (and in accordance with general custom), buying and selling, the antidotes to various poisons, the repelling of ominous stellar influences, conditions of friendship, culling medicinal plants and herbs in the woods, operations in alchemy, works relating to Yoga and other duties of the same gracious character, are believed to be most salutary during the Chandra-náḍi period; while entering the presence of kings, and undertaking war are best during the Súrya-náḍi. In the Chandra-náḍi times, in battle, the enemy should be engaged from the left; during the Súrya-náḍi, from the right. Bodily safety is generally ascribed as dependent on the particular side of the breathing. The conquest of a province and (according to one opinion) travelling in one's own country, eating, sexual intercourse, bathing, imprisonment, withdrawing from any work, obstructing another's affections, and the like inauspicious actions, are suitable to the Súrya-náḍi. In the Sushumná period, no work is undertaken.

All works of an auspicious nature are undertaken under the influence of the elements of water and earth, while those that are to be durable are chosen with reference to the elements of fire and air. No good work is ascribable to ether. When proceeding to any place, that foot is first lifted on whichever side the breathing is greatest, and if a person meets a superior to whom reverence is due, or from whom he expects to receive a favour, he takes care in his movements to keep that personage on the side on which he himself breathes;¹ but an evil-disposed person, or a creditor, and the like, should be kept on the non-respiratory side. They also say that upper and forward situations are dominated by Chandra-náḍi, and those inferior and behind, by Súrya-náḍi, and in both cases the parties must continue in their several positions till the action is concluded.

Should any one inquire whether a child about to be born, will be a boy or a girl, the person questioned must ascertain from which of his own nostrils the breathing is greater. If the questioner be on that side, he will gladden him with the news of a son; if not, he will reply that it will be a girl. If he breathes equally through both nostrils, there will be twins. If it should so happen that during the inquiry, he should breathe through one nostril more than another, he will predict the extinction of that life. Another opinion is that if the questioner stand on the Chandra-náḍi side, it will be a girl; if on the Súrya-náḍi, a boy, and if the breathing be of the kind Sushumná, an hermaphrodite. Some say that the times referrible to the elements of earth and water, indicate a boy, and those of fire and air, a girl, and ether implies death. If the inquiries relate to matters concerning study, tuition, marriage, menial service or its employment, attendance on the great, and buying and selling, the element of water prognosticates speedy success; that of earth, more tardy; of air, the success will be small; of fire, gain followed by loss. Ether shows no benefit. If the inquiry be regarding rain, the elements of earth and water indicate that rain will fall, but in the latter there is greater evidence of a plentiful supply to the crops. The element of air predicts clouds without rain; and fire, gentle showers. Regarding questions as to crops, water and earth show that they will yield the revenue, and in the latter case a full harvest; air indicates a moderate crop, and fire that it will be burnt up. No evidence of result is shown by ether. Should the inquiry be relative to sickness, and if the period be Chandra-náḍi, and the questioner be on the Súrya-náḍi side, or vice versa, the sick person will die, but if he stand on the Chandra-náḍi side, the patient will quickly recover. Should the question be made on the Súryanáḍi side, the illness will be protracted, but recovery will follow. Others look to the manner of the breathing. If the question be put during an inspiration which is called living breath, it is a sign of life; but if during an expiration, which is styled lifeless breath, the patient will die; in all inquiries this rule is regarded. A man bitten by a snake or under demoniacal possession, or mauled by a hyæna¹ is accounted among sick persons.

Should the question be regarding invasion by a foreign force: if the period be Chandra-náḍi, and the questioner stand on that side, it indicates an affirmative; if he stand on the Súrya-náḍi side, a negative. Others say that if the times appertain to the elements of earth and water, no invasion will occur, but those of fire and air denote an advance. Ether gives no response. If the inquiries be concerning war and peace, Chandra-náḍi implies the latter, and Súrya-náḍi the former. Some maintain that the earth-periods predict a severe engagement and that many will be wounded, while fire, air and ether point to losses on both sides. Water signifies a peace. If the question relate to the issue between the querist and his enemy, earth implies war, and that many will fall; fire predicts victory to the questioner; air defeat, and ether his death in the engagement; water indicates a coming peace. If information be sought regarding the result of hostilities between defenders of a country and foreign troops, Chandra-náḍi denotes victory to the former, and Súrya-náḍi to the latter. Some are of opinion that if the questioner stand on the left, and the period be Chandra-náḍi, if the letters of the name of the questioner be even, he will be successful: if he stand on the right, and it be Súrya-náḍi, and the number of the letters be odd, victory will rest with the latter. If both names have an equal number of letters, and the questioner be on the side of the breathing nostril, the former will have the advantage; if on the side of the non-breathing nostril, the latter.

If information is asked, regarding a person absent, the water-periods indicate his speedy arrival; earth, that he is settled where he is; air, that he has emigrated to another country, and fire implies his death. Ether reveals nothing. If the thoughts of the questioner refer to any subject of the animal, vegetable and mineral kingdoms, earth-periods imply the vegetable; water and air, the animal, and fire, the inorganic and mineral; the ether-periods point to the absence of these thoughts from the mind of the questioner.

Such is this strange account, of which let the foregoing suffice:—

is a doctrinal treatise on incantations relative to things that will produce advantage or repel hurt, increase knowledge and remedy diseases, augment wealth, destroy enemies, cement friendship, secure conquest and advance good government, and the like.

or augury,¹ is the extraordinary art of predicting events from the motions of birds. Their song, their silence, their movements and repose, and indications of pleasure and sadness, and similar signs, discover the present and the future. There are many in this country who are skilled in this important science. One day, in a royal preserve, two mainás¹ sat perched side by side chirping low together. His Majesty deigned to inquire the subject of their converse from an expert in this divination, who replied that were he to reveal their confidence to his Majesty, he would not be believed. The male desired to pair while the female excused herself. It was not improbable that if the nest were searched stains of blood would be found. On examination being made, his words were found to be true. The sooth-sayers of Hindustan foretell future events chiefly by means of five methods, the stars, breathing from the nostrils, augury, incantations, and kevala², which is divination by the throwing of dice, and it comprises various other kinds of prognostication.

or Palmistry, predicts events from observation of the character of the members of the body and their movements, and from lines and marks, and the results are generally accurate.

is a science treating of snakes, scorpions, and other venomous reptiles, the effects of whose injuries it averts. By reciting incantations and repeating the genealogical descent (of the person affected) and praising his ancestry, the animal is made to appear. An extraordinary circumstance is the following:—They take an old snake of a particular kind, and after certain incantations they make it bite a Bráhman. When the poison works, the man becomes senseless, in which state he answers any questions put to him, and these prove correct. The Hindu sages believe that during the Kali cycle, nothing can be more true than these revelations of the unknown, and several works containing these answers are still extant.

is the art of sorcery, of magical spells, and sleight of hand. The wonders performed by these means are beyond the power of expression.

or Alchemy, is the science of the fusing of mercury (rasa), gold, silver, copper, and the like. It is by this art that the elixir, or philosopher's stone, is produced.

is the art of testing jewels and precious stones of various kinds, and treats of their production, properties, value, and kindred subjects.

treats of the generation of the human race.

or rhetorical composition, is a science comprising various kinds of knowledge. It sets forth the shades of signification in words, appropriateness of expression, and solecisms of language. They hold the Supreme Being to be its author. The meaning underlying a word is said to be four-fold:—(1). ´Sakti (power of a word), is denotation and its conventional relation to the thing designated. (2). Lakshaná (indication),¹ communicates the applied meaning desired. (3). Gauṇa, (qualitative), illustrates figuratively the thing compared. (4). Vyanjañá (suggestion), is to say one thing and mean another which has no apparent application. As, for example, a woman sent her maid-servant with a message to call her husband who, when she entered his private apartment, used criminal familiarity with her and sent an excuse by her for his not returning. When she took back the message, from the pallor of her face and the obliteration of her marks of sandal-wood and collyrium, and of the colour (from her lips), the wife understood what had really occurred. Though much pained, she showed no signs of it in her speech, but said,—‘You are speaking an untruth; you never went to fetch him, but you went to the banks of the stream and bathed, for the collyrium is no longer round your eyes nor the sandal-wood unguent on your person.” By this delicate irony she discovered her knowledge of what had taken place, and her own distress of mind.¹

Some consider the figurative sense (gauṇa), to belong to the second head, and they describe with peculiar force and elaborate detail all that makes for literary ornament and grace of expression. It is held to be the highest form of dramatic poetry, of rhetorical art, and metrical composition.² This science also comprises the Navarasa,³ or the nine sentiments, which inspire universal interest. The first is ´Sṛingára-rasa (the erotic passion), that is, the mutual affection of men and women, and all that relates to their union and separation. Secondly, Hásya-rasa, mirth of various kinds. This is produced, they say, by variations in person, speech, action and dress. It is three-fold:—1. Smita, (smile), a slight alteration in the cheek, eye and lip. (2). Vihasita (gentle laugh), in which the mouth is a little open. (3). Apahasita, laughter accompanied by sound of the voice.⁴ Thirdly, Karuṇa-rasa, pity or regret, as at the loss of a friend or property. Fourthly, Raudra, anger. Fifthly, Víra (heroism), the admiration produced by acts of munificence, clemency and valour. Sixthly Bhayánaka, terror. Seventhly, Bíbhatsa, aversion. Eighthly, Adbhuta, wonder, as at the sight of any (extraordinary) object. Ninthly, Sánta (quietism), the tranquillity that comes of knowledge and the indifference which regards friend and foe as alike. Of these they make various sub-divisions and illustrate them by delightful examples.¹

The relations between the sexes are also considered in this branch of knowledge, and the passion of love amply discussed. In Irán and Ṭúrán, this affection chiefly subsists between men; in Hindustan and Ḥijáz, between men and women. Devotion to the female sex is the characteristic of the Arab, while the native of India includes both sexes alike in his regard.

The Hindus term a heroine (in dramatic poetry), náyika, and three kinds are named. (1). Svíyá, (own wife), a virtuous woman devoted to her husband: from modesty she looks neither to the right hand nor to the left, but only from the corner of her eyes so that her glance is rarely seen: her laugh does not pass beyond her lips and her teeth are not disclosed: she speaks seldom and never loudly: she rarely loses her temper, and if she be provoked to anger, it is restrained within her heart and does not appear in her eyes or manner. (2). Parakíyá, (belonging to another), is one who clandestinely carries on an intrigue with other than her husband. If a married woman she is called Prauḍha; a maiden, Kanyaká. Other classifications of this kind are carried to an indefinite extent.² Sámányá (courtesan), is the property of none, and is concerned only in making money.

Svíyá is classed under three heads:—(1). Mugdhá, (artless), one who from her childish age and inexperience goes³ out-of-doors, and in whom youth begins to grow headstrong, and who may be to some extent conscious of her beauty or otherwise, and shrinks from the embraces of her husband. When she retires to sleep, she regards him furtively and pretends to slumber lest he should enter into conversation but from fear of him sleeps not. The age of such a one ranges from eight to twelve and at times to thirteen. (2). Madhyá (middling or adolescent) is one in whom modesty and love for her husband are combined in an equal degree. She may speak in anger but never thus to her husband. Her age does not exceed thirty-two. (3). Pragalbhá (bold or mature) makes her love and address pleasing to her husband and captivates him by her experienced arts. The age of this kind extends to fifty-two years.

The last two are further subdivided into three classes. (1). Dhírá (constant). If her husband pay attention to another woman, though fired by jealousy, she becomes more assiduous in her devotion and service and by this means makes him ashamed of his conduct. (2). Adhírá (capricious). Such a one takes no notice of his infidelity and holds her peace, but she will address him cheerfully so as to cover him with confusion and say:— “It is strange that while you are wakeful, my eyes glance love and while you are drunk with wine, my heart is in agitation.” (3). Dhírá Adhírá, is one who unites both these dispositions and sighs to show that she understands. Some add a conversation after the manner above indicated.¹

Svíyá is also of two kinds. (1). Jyeshṭhá (pre-eminent, eldest), is one who is preferred by her husband above all women. (2). Kanisṭhá (inferior, youngest) is one for whom her husband's affection is less strong.

Parakíyá is of five kinds. (1). Guptá (guarded) covers her conduct, and skilfully conceals her past indiscretions and her future designs, feigning plausible excuses. If for instance she has been scratched by her lover's nail, she will say “I cannot sleep in this room:—a cat chases a mouse, and in the scramble gives me this scratch.” (2). Vidagdhá (adroit or artful). By her persuasive speech she acquires influence and her winning manners secure it. (3). Lakshitá (notorious), shows her affection openly and without fear. (4). Kulaṭá (unchaste), has many lovers and retains the affections of each without pecuniary considerations. (5). Anuśayáná (regretting), is one who from timidity does not keep her assignation and is fearful lest her lover come and not find her.

They also class women under eight heads:—(1). Proshita-bhartṛiká is one whose husband is abroad, and she is distressed at his absence from her, or he is on the point of setting out and she is disquieted by her fears. Other opinions subdivide this, making nine classes. (2). Khaṇḍitá is one who is disconsolate at being betrayed by her husband or lover. (3). Kalahántaritá is one who has quarrelled with her lover and is penitent and wishes to appease him. (4). Vipra-labdhá goes to an assignation but is disappointed at not finding her lover. (5). Utká¹ is disconsolate at her lover's not coming, and seeks the cause thereof. (6). Vásakasajjá is joyful at the coming of her lover, and is dressed in her ornaments to receive him. (7). Svádhína-patiká, (independent—having her own way), is a woman whose lover is obedient to her wishes. (8). Abhisáriká, is one who invites her lover, or herself goes to him.

Another classification of women is of three kinds:—(1). Uttamá (best), is one who is in love with her husband though he show her no affection. (2). Adhamá (worst), opposite of the above. (3). Madhyamá (intermediate), is sometimes united in harmony and affection with her husband and at times is unfriendly and estranged.

A further division is four-fold:—(1). Padminí, is incomparable for her beauty and good disposition, and is tall of stature. Her limbs are perfectly proportioned; her voice soft, her speech gracious though reserved, and her breath fragrant as the rose. She is chaste and obedient to her husband. (2). Chitriṇí, is somewhat inferior to the former; is neither stout nor thin, has a slender waist and a full bust. (3). ´Sankhiní, is fat and short, constantly quarrelling with her husband and has a violent temper. (4). Hastiní, is repulsive in appearance and manners.

All these are treated at length, with the particular classes of men that are suited to each. Mána signifies indignation in a woman at misconduct on the part of her husband. It is of four kinds:—(1). Laghu, (trifling), when she gives herself airs at the least caress or endearment of her husband or lover. (2). Madhya (middling), is when she is estranged by some slight provocation. (3). Guru (weighty), when after much fond² entreaty on his part, she lays aside her wayward humour. (4). Rasábhasa (simulated sentiment), is when she refuses reconciliation.

The lover or hero (in a drama) is called Náyaka. These also are named suitably to the heroines, but are restricted to three:—(1). Pati (lord or husband), chooses in wedlock only a Hindu woman. (2). Upapati,³ (). (3). Vaishayika, a sensualist.

Each of these is subdivided into four kinds:—(1). Anukúla, (faithful), is attached to one woman only. (2). Dakshiṇa (impartial), pays his addresses to many, and adroitly secures the favours of all. (3). Dhṛishta, (cool or impudent), is one whom the heroine in her indignation repels while he caresses and flatters her the more. (4). ´Saṭha, (perfidious), by cunning and simulating affection wins her heart (though attached to another.)¹

In the treatment of love-episodes, the greatest art is shown in the situations of the hero and heroine and the dramas abound with the most felicitous passages.

Sakhi is the term for the usual female confidante on whose faithful service the heroine relies. Her advice and devotion are of the greatest comfort. She jests and amuses her mistress and never fails her in the time of need. She arranges her ornaments and assists in tiring her. By her persuasive representations she removes the misunderstandings between husband and wife and effects a reconciliation. She is ever ready with her counsel and good offices, and is entrusted with messages. Such a female is called dúti; if a man, dúta. She is conversant with all the mysteries of union and separation and is an expert in matters connected with love and rivalry.

In this art the manners and bearing of the hero and the heroine² are set-forth with much variety of exposition, and illustrated by delightful examples. The works on this subject should be consulted by those who are interested in its study.

is the art of singing, accompanied by music and dancing. The subject is treated in seven chapters (adhyáyas).

THE FIRST is Svarádhyáya, on musical tone which is of two kinds. (1). Anáhata, sound produced without cause (i. e., otherwise than by percussion). This is considered to be one and eternal. If a man close both orifices of his ears with his fingers, he will be conscious of a resonance, and this is signified by the above term. They believe this to proceed from Brahmá, and when the consciousness of it becomes habitual and it is heard without mediate aid, final liberation (mukti) is then attained. (2). A´hata, sound produced by a cause, which, like speech, is accounted a quality of air and is produced by percussion and protrusion. They say that in each of the three locations of the abdomen, the throat, and the head, twenty-two fibres or chords have been divinely created. The primary movement of air is from the navel, and the volume of sound produced depends upon the strength or softness of the initial force exerted.¹

They consider that the fifth, sixth, eighteenth and nineteenth chords are mute and the remaining eighteen are classed under the seven primary notes in the following order:—

(1). Shaḍja,¹ is taken from the note of the peacock (and extends to the fourth chord). (2). Ṛishabha, is taken from the note of the Papíha (Coccystes Melanoleucos), and beginning after the fourth chord (omitting the fifth and sixth), extends from the seventh to the tenth. (3). Gándhára, is from the bleating of a he-goat and its compass extends from the ninth to the thirteenth. (4). Madhyama, resembles the cry of the Coolen Crane² (Ardea Sibirica), and its compass is from the thirteenth to the sixteenth. (5). Paṇchama, is taken from the note of the Ko'il (Cuculus Indicus), and is attuned on the seventeenth. (6). Dhaivata, is like the croak of the frog, and its compass extends from the twentieth³ to the twenty-second. (7). Nisháda is taken from the sound of the elephant¹ and its compass is from the twenty-second to the third of the next series (of twenty-two). Each heptachord occurs successively in each series, and in the third, Nisháda, cannot, of course, go beyond the twenty-second chord.

A system of intervals in which the whole seven notes of the gamut are employed, is termed Sampúrṇa. If there be only six, the fundamental must be one of them, and it is styled Sháḍava; if five, Auḍava, the fundamental being of necessity one of them. None has fewer than these, but the tána which is a separate intonation may consist of two.²

THE SECOND is Rága-vivekádhyáya, on divers musical compositions and their variations.³

Their origin is ascribed to Mahádeva and (his wife) Párvati. The first-mentioned had five mouths,¹ from each of which issued a melody in the following order:—

(1). ´Srí-rága. (2). Vasanta. (3). Bhairava. (4). Pañchama. (5). Megah. (6). Nata-Naráyaṇa was produced by Párvati. Each of these six modes is called in Sanskrit Rága, and they are reckoned the primary orders of sounds. Each of them has numerous variations.

The ´Srí-rága has the whole seven notes (sampúrna) of the gamut. In this, Rishabha has a compass to the eighth chord, Gándhára to the tenth, Madhyama to the thirteenth, and Dhaivata to the twenty-first: Nisháda is allotted but one. And in like manner other changes occur throughout all the modifications.

1. VARIATIONS OF ´SRÍ-RÁGA:—(1). Málaví. (2). Tirovaní.² (3). Gaurí. (4). Kedárí. (5). Madhu-mádhaví. (6). Vihárí.

2. VARIATIONS OF VASANTA:—(1). Desí. (2). Devagirí. (3). Vairátí.¹ (4). Toḍí. (5). Lálitá. (6). Hindólí.

3. VARIATIONS OF BHAIRAVA:—(1). Madhya-mádi². (2). Bhairaví. (3). Bángah. (4). Varátaka.³ (5.) Sindaví.⁴ (6.) Punarjṅneya.⁵

4. VARIATIONS OF PA@~NCHAMA:—(1). Vibhása.⁶ (2). Bhúpáli. (3). Kánará.⁷ (4). Baḍhansiká. (5). Malaśri. (6). Padhamanjari.⁸

5. VARIATIONS OF MEGHA:—(1). Malár. (2). Sorathí. (3). A´sávarí.⁹ (4). Kaisukí.¹⁰ (5). Gándhárí. (6). Harsingárí.¹¹

6. VARIATIONS OF NÁṬA NARÁYAṆA:—(1). Kámodí. (2). Kalyáṇ.¹² (3). Ahírí.¹³ (4). ´Suddhanáṭa.¹⁴ (5). Sálak.¹⁵ (6). Naṭ-Hamíra.¹⁶

Some allow only five variations to each mode and numerous other differences occur. Others in place of Vasanta, Pañchama and Megha, substitute Málakauśika,¹⁷ Hindola and Dípaka, and make five instead of six variations to each, with a few other discrepancies of less importance. Others again, in place of the second, third, fourth and fifth modes, have ´Suddha-bhairava, Hindola, Deśakára and ´Suddha-náṭa.

Songs are of two kinds. The first is called Márga or the lofty style as chanted by the gods and great Ṛishis, which is in every country the same, and held in great reveration. The masters of this style are numerous in the Dekhan,¹⁸ and the six modes abovementioned with numerous variations of which the following are examples, are held by them to appertain to it.

(1). Surya-prakáśa. (2). Pañcha-táleśvara. (3). Sarvato-bhadra. (4). Chandra-prakáśa. (5). Rága-kadamba. (6). Jhúmara. (7). Svaravartaní.

The second kind is called Deśi or applicable to the special locality, like the singing of the Dhurpad in Agra, Gwalior, Bári and the adjacent country. When Mán Singh¹ (Toṇwar) ruled as Rájá of Gwalior, with the assistance of Náyak Bakshú, Macchú, and Bhanú, who were the most distinguished musicians of their day, he introduced a popular style of melody which was approved even by the most refined taste. On his death, Bakshú and Machhú passed into the service of Sulṭán Maḥmúd of Gujarát where this new style came into universal favour.

The Dhurpad² (Dhruva-pada) consists of four rhythmical lines without any definite prosodial length of words or syllables. It treats of the fascinations of love and its wondrous effects upon the heart. In the Dekhan these songs are expressed in their language by the term Chind, and consist of three or four lines, and are chiefly laudatory. In the Tilanga and Carnatic dialects they are called Dhruva, and their subject is erotic. Those of Bengal are called Bangula, and those of Jounpúr, Chuṭkala, while the songs of Dehli are called ḳaul and tarána. These last were introduced by Amír Khusrau, of Dehli, in concert with Ṣámit and Tatár, and by combining the several styles of Persia and India, form a delightful variety. The songs of Mathura are called Bishn-pad, (Vishṇu-pada) consisting of four, six and eight lines, sung in honour of Vishṇu. Those of Sind are styled Kámi and are amatory. Those in the dialect of Tirhút are called Lahchárí, and are the composition of Biddyá-pat, and in character highly erotic. In Lahor and the adjacent parts, they are called Chhand; those of Gujarát, Jakri.¹ The war songs and heroic chants called Karkha, they term Sádara, and these consist also of four, six, and eight lines, and are sung in various dialects.

Besides these that have been named, there are numerous other modes, amongst which are the following:—

Sárang; Púrbí; Dhanáśrí; Rámkalí; Kuráí, (which His Majesty has styled Sughrái);² Súha; Deśakála and Désákha.

THE THIRD is called Prakírṇádhyáya or a chapter of miscellaneous rules and treats of Alápa,³ which is of two kinds. (1). Rágálapa, the development of the rága, commonly termed (in Persian) adá and taṣarruf, and (2). Rúpálápa: which comprises the metrical setting of the words to the air and their vocal expression.

THE FOURTH, or Prabandhádhyáya, is on the art of composing a rhythmic measure (gíta)¹ to vocal music. It consists of six members, viz. (1). Svara, (notes as sa, ṛi, &c., taken at their proper pitch). (2). Viruda, panegyric. (3). Pada, name of its object. (4). Tená, a cadence of notes on a symbolic standard, as tena, tená, and the modulation of the lines. (5). Páṭa, the continuous imitation of sounds (proceeding from percussion instruments) as tena, tená, máná, &c., from three letters to twenty, in a specific order as a supplementary guiding measure. (6). Tála, rhythm expressed by beat. If the whole six members be present, the composition (prabandha) is called mediní;² if one less, it is termed ánandiní; if two less, dípaní; if three less, bhávaní, and if four less, tárávalí; but with only two it does not (commonly) occur.

These four adhyáyas treat of the various refinements of melody.

THE FIFTH is Táládhyáya, on the nature and quantity of the musical beats.

THE SIXTH is Vádyádhyáya, on the various musical instruments. These are of four kinds.

(1). Tata, stringed instruments. (2). Vitata, instruments over which skin is stretched. (3). Ghana, all that gives resonance by the concussion of two solid bodies. (4). ´Sushira, wind instruments.