The Yantra1 is formed of a hollow neck of wood a yard in length, at each end of which are attached the halves of two gourds. Above the neck are sixteen frets over which are strung five steel wires fastened securely at both ends. The low and high notes and their variations are produced by the disposition of the frets.
The Víṇá (Hindi. Bín) resembles the Yantra, but has three strings.
The Kinnar resembles the Víṇa, but with a longer finger-board and has three gourds and two wires.2
The Sar-víṇá is also like the Víṇá but without frets.
The Amrití has the finger-board shorter than the Sar-víṇá, and a small gourd below the upper side, and one steel wire upon which all the scales may be played.
The Rabáb3 has six strings of gut, but some have twelve and others eighteen.
The Sarmanḍal1 is like the Ḳánún. It has twenty-one strings, some of steel, some of brass, and some of gut.
The Sárangi is smaller than the Rabáb and is played like the Ghichak.2
The Pinák, called also Sur-batána, is of wood about the length of a bow and slightly bent. A string of gut is fastened to it and a hollow cup inverted, is attached at either end. It is played like the Ghichak, but in the left hand a small gourd is held which is used in playing.
The A´dhaṭi3 has one gourd and two wires.
The Kingara4 resembles the Víṇá, but has two strings of gut and smaller gourds.
The Pakháwaj5 is made of a thick shell of wood shaped like a myrobolan and hollow. It is over a yard in length and if clasped round the middle, the fingers of the two hands will meet. The ends are a little larger in circumference than the mouth of a pitcher and are covered with skin. It is furnished with leather braces which are strained, as in the naḳára or kettle-drum, and four pieces of wood, under a span in length, are inserted (between the shell and the braces) on the left side and serve to tune the instrument.
The A´waj is made of a hollow piece of wood, and might be described as two kettle-drums joined at the reverse ends and their heads covered with skin and braced with thongs.
The Duhul6 (drum) is well-known.
The Ḍhaḍḍa is like the Duhul but very small.
The Ardháwaj is half the size of the A´waj.
The Daf, or tambourine,7 is well-known.
The Khanjari is a tambourine smaller than the Daf, but with cymbals, and its surface is about the size of a pitcher.1
The Tála is a pair of brass cymbals like cups with broad mouths.
The Kaṭh Tála, or castanets, are small and fish-shaped. The set consists of four pieces, of wood or stone.
The Shahná,2 called in Persian Surná.
The Mashk, or bagpipe, is composed of two reeds3 perforated according to rule and attached (to the bag). It is called in Persian Nai-ambán.
The Murli is a kind of flute.
The Upang is a hollow reed a yard long, the upper part of which has a hole in the centre in which a reed is inserted.
THE SEVENTH is Nrityádhyáya, or the art of dancing.
Having cursorily reviewed the subject of vocal and instrumental music, I turn to a brief mention of their musicians.
The chanters of the ancient hymns which were everywhere the same, were called Vaikáras, and their teachers were styled Sahakáras. The Kaláants, or more commonly Kalávants or bards, are well known, and sing the Dhurpad.
The Ḍháḍhís are the Punjabi singers who play upon the Ḍhaḍḍa and the Kingara. They chiefly chant the praises of heroes on the field of battle and lend fresh spirit to the fight. The Ḳawwáls4 are of this class, but sing mostly after the Dehli and Jounpúr style, and Persian verses in the same manner.
The Huṛkíyah men play upon the Huṛuk, which is also called Âwaj, and the women the Tála, and they also sing. Formerly they chanted the Karkha, but nowadays only the Dhurpad, and the like. Many of the women add great beauty to their musical accomplishments.
The Dafzan, or tambourine player. The Ḍháḍhí women chiefly play on the Daf and the Duhul, and sing the Dhurpad and the Sohlá on occasions of nuptial and birthday festivities in a very accomplished manner. Formerly they appeared only before assemblies of women but now before audiences of men.
The Sezdah-tálí. The men of this class have large drums, and the women, while they sing, play upon thirteen pairs of tálas at once, two being on each wrist, two on the joint of each elbow, two on the junction of the shoulder blades,1 and two on each shoulder, one on the breast and two on the fingers of each hand. They are mostly from Gujarát and Málwah.
The Naṭwas exhibit some graceful dancing, and introduce various styles to which they sing. They play upon the Pakháwaj, the Rabáb and the Tála.
The Kírtaniya are Bráhmans, whose instruments are such as were in use among the ancients. They dress up smooth-faced boys as women and make them perform, singing the praises of Kṛishṇa and reciting his acts.
The Bhagatiya have songs similar to the above, but they dress up in various disguises and exhibit extraordinary mimicry. They perform at night.
The Bhaṅnvayya2 resemble the last-named, but they exhibit both by night and day. Sitting and standing in the compass of a copper dish called in Hindi, tháli, they sing in various modes and go through wonderful performances.
The Bhánḍ play the Duhul and Tála and sing and mimic men and animals.
The Kanjarí: The men of this class play the Pakháwaj, the Rabáb and the Tála, while the women sing and dance. His Majesty calls them Kanchanís.3
The Naṭs are rope-dancers, and perform wonderful acrobatic feats. They play on the Tála and Duhul.
The Bahu-rúpí exhibit their mimicry by day: youths disguise themselves as old men so successfully that they impose upon the most acute observers.
The Bázígar performs wonderful feats of legerdemain and by his dexterous conjuring deceives the eye. For instance, one will carry an enormous stone on his back, or they will appear to cut a man into pieces and then restore him to his natural state.
Their extraordinary performances are beyond description and each of them affects a special style of vocal accompaniment.
is an entertainment held at night by the nobles of this country, some of whose (female) domestic servants are taught to sing and play. Four pretty women lead off a dance, and some graceful movements are executed. Four others are employed to sing, while four more accompany them with cymbals: two others play the pakháwaj, two the upang, while the Dekhan rabáb, the víṇá and the yantra, are each taken by one player. Besides the usual lamps of the entertainment, two women holding lamps stand near the circle of performers. Some employ more. It is more common for a band of these naṭwás to be retained in service who teach the young slave-girls to perform. Occasionally they instruct their own girls and take them to the nobles and profit largely by the commerce.
His Majesty has a considerable knowledge of the principles explained in the Sangíta and other works, and what serves as an occasion to induce a lethargic sleep in other mortals, becomes to him a source of exceeding vigilance.
is the knowledge of elephants and all that concerns their various peculiarities, their care and health and the causes and symptoms of sickness and its remedies.
or veterinary surgery, is the knowledge of all that appertains to the horse and its treatment.
is the science of architecture and its characteristics.
treats of the art of cookery and the properties of food.
is the science of state-craft. As it behoves a monarch in the governance of the interior spirit, to avoid the evil results of desire and anger, similarly the administration of temporal affairs is guided by observance of the like conduct. The principal occasions of unruliness of desires which cause the downfall of princes, are said to be ten:—(1). The pursuit of game. (2). Dicing. (3). Sleep. (4). Censoriousness. (5). Intercourse with women. (6). Singing1 songs. (7). Dancing. (8). The society of musicians. (9). Wine. (10). Solitude.
The chief sources of the calamities of anger are: (1). Confiscation of property. (2). Ungraciousness in acknowledgment of benefits. (3). Betraying a secret. (4). Unmindfulness of the service of dependents. (5). Abusive language. (6). Unjust suspicion. (7). Taking life without due deliberation, and the like. (8). Publishing the faults of others.
It is incumbent on monarchs to live free from the baneful consequences of desire and anger and not to sully their dignity with these eighteen sources of crime. If they are unable to avoid them altogether, they should never transgress due measure in their regard. They say that a prince should be God-fearing, circumspect and just, compassionate and bountiful, recognising virtue and the distinctions of rank and merit. He should be courteous in speech, kindly in aspect and condescending in his manner. He should be ever ambitious of extending his dominions, and should protect his subjects from the exactions of revenue-officers, from thieves, robbers and other evil-doers. He should proportion the punishment to the offence and be firm of purpose and yet clement. His intelligencers should be appointed from among men of trust and sagacity. He should never despise his enemy nor be remiss in vigilance nor be proud of his wealth and power. He should not admit to his court venal and corrupt designers. A king resembles a gardener and should carry out, in regard to his subjects, the course pursued in the care of his garden by the other, who puts away thorns and weeds and keeps his flower-beds in good order, allowing no depredations from without. In the same way a prince should transfer to the frontier of his dominions the turbulence of the seditious, and free the courts of his palace from their machinations, and allow no other evil designers to enter them. The gardener, likewise, from time to time, prunes the redundancy of leaf and branch on his trees, so the king should isolate from each other the more powerful nobles whose friends and dependents are dangerously numerous. The gardener also invigorates his weak saplings with water, and the king should similarly sustain with beneficence his impoverished soldiery.
The king should choose a circumspect person of exemplary piety, courteous in disposition, vigilant, zealous, and masterful, reading the signs of the times and divining the intentions of his lord, and ready of speech, and in consultation with him, provide for the spiritual and temporal affairs of his kingdom. But if he finds himself physically unable to carry on these duties, he should entrust their complicated direction to him. In important affairs he should not consult with many advisers, because the qualifications necessary in such cases are fidelity, breadth of view, fortitude of spirit, and perspicacity, and the union of these four priceless virtues in any one man is uncommonly rare. Although some statesmen of former times consulted with men of a different stamp with the intention of acting directly contrary to their advice, in the majority of cases this course did not answer and many disasters were the consequence, for this special reason, that it is difficult to efface from the mind the suspicions aroused by the insinuations of cowardly, unprincipled, short-sighted and base men. Former princes adopted the practice of selecting from four to eight intelligent counsellors with the qualifications above-mentioned, under the presidency of one of their number. The opinion of each of these was separately taken on matters concerning the welfare of the State and the revenues, after which they were assembled in consultation and their several opinions carefully weighed without disclosing the author.
Further, a prince is in need of a faithful attendant, a profound astrologer, and a skilful physician. His wide experience will enable him to surround himself with friends, to maintain a well-appointed force, and to fill his treasury. He will portion out his dominions and entrust them to just and circumspect governors, and unite them in a befitting co-operation of government. He is zealous in the construction and provision of his fortresses and careful in their maintenance.
With his equals in power he is on terms of amity and concord and exacts tribute from the weak. He sows dissensions in the armies of one more powerful than himself by skilful intrigue, or failing this, he conciliates him with presents. As long as possible he avoids hostilities with all, but when war is inevitable, he enters upon it with fearlessness and vigour and upholds his honour. He should consider a prince whose territories are conterminous with his own, as his enemy though he be profuse in demonstrations of friendship. With one whose country is situated next beyond, he should form an alliance. With a third more remote, he should avoid all intercourse whether hostile or friendly.
After the above manner have statesmen laid down rules of government, suggesting approved modes of conduct and enforcing them with numerous happy illustrations, all of which are referrible to the qualities of wisdom, recognition of merit, bravery, good temper, reserve in speech, zeal, and benevolence.
or
The Administration of Justice.
The learned among the Hindus say that litigation in its various kinds falls under eighteen titles,1 for each of which there is a separate course of procedure, viz.—(1). Non-payment of debt. (2). Deposits. (3). Sale without ownership. (4). Disputes in partnership. (5). Reclaiming a gift. (6). Disputes between master and servant regarding wages, under which head are included labourers and such as work for hire. (7). Default of revenue by the cultivator. (8). Recision of purchase between buyer and seller. (9). Mulcts on herdsmen. (10). Boundary disputes. (11). Slander. (12). Assault. (13). Theft. (14). Violence with bloodshed. (15). Adultery. (16). Altercation between man and wife. (17). Inheritance. (18). Gambling disputes.
The king in his judicial character must erect his tribunal facing the east. He must conduct the duties of his office in person, and if he cannot always himself attend to them, he must delegate his authority to a wise, fearless and painstaking deputy.
The plaintiff is termed Vádin and the defendant Prati-vádin. A child under twelve years of age may not be summoned to court, nor one who is drunk; nor one crazy, nor one who is sick or engaged in the service of the State, nor a woman without relations, or of high family, or who has recently given birth to a child. A discreet person should be commissioned to interrogate in such cases, or they should be brought into the royal presence.
The plaintiff's statement is taken down in writing, with the date of the year, month, and day, and the names of the two parties and their ancestors for three descents, and many other particulars. The reply of the defendant is then recorded and both their statements are carefully investigated. The plaintiff is then asked for any documentary evidence and for his witnesses. These should not be fewer than four, though some allow only three, and even one is considered sufficient if he be a person of known veracity.
A child under five may not serve as a witness, nor a man broken down with age. The evidence of a ´Súdra is only available for a ´Súdra, and that of a handicraftsman for one of his own trade. The evidence of a blind man may not be taken, nor of one who is deaf, or diseased, or drunk, or crazy, nor of a gambler, nor of a notorious evil-liver, nor of one oppressed by hunger and thirst, nor of an angry man, nor of a thief, nor of one who is being taken to execution. For women, women should serve as witnesses. A friend may not witness for a friend, nor an enemy against an enemy, nor partners for each other. In all oral litigation, dryness of the lips, and biting them, and licking the sides of the mouth, alteration of voice and change of colour, should be taken into consideration as collateral proof.
In all suits these conditions of evidence are imperative except under titles eleven to fourteen.
If there be no documentary evidence or witnesses, the judge must decide to the best of his ability, with caution and prudence; but if he cannot discover the facts of the case, he must cause the plaintiff or, as some say, either of the two parties, as he thinks best, to undergo the ordeal.1 This is of eight kinds.
The first kind. The man is weighed and taken out of the scales, and after some prayers and incantations, he is again weighed. If his scale rises, his claim is allowed, but an even balance or his scale preponderating, are proofs of its falsehood. Some authorities say that the balance is never even. This ordeal is only for Bráhmans.
The second kind. Seven or nine circles are drawn with a distance of sixteen fingers' breadth between each periphery. The person is then bathed and religious ceremonies and incantations, as above described, are gone through. His two hands are then rubbed over with rice-bran, and seven green leaves of the pipal-tree (Ficus religiosa) are placed upon them and bound round seven times with raw silk. A piece of iron, weighing 3⅓ sers and heated red-hot, is then placed upon the leaves which, thus heated, he carries and advances taking one step between each circle, till, on arriving at the last, he throws the iron down. If there is no sign of a burn, his word is accepted. If the iron fall from his hands mid-way, he must begin again.
The third kind. The person is made to stand in water up to his navel and dips under with his face to the east. Then, from a bow measuring 106 fingers breadth, a reed arrow without an iron point, is shot off so that it shall fly with the wind and a fast runner is sent to fetch it. If he can keep under water from the time the shaft is loosed till the runner returns with it, his cause is declared just. This ordeal is especially for the Vaiśya caste.
The fourth kind. Seven barley corns of a deadly poison are administered in the spring season (Vasanta), or five in the heats (Grishmá), or four in the rains (Varsha), six in the autumn (´Sarad), and seven in the winter (Haimanta). These are to be mixed with thirty-three times the quantity of clarified butter and given to the man after certain incantations. The face of the patient must be towards the south, and the person who administers must face the east or north. If during a period in which the hands may be clapped 500 times, the poison does not take effect, his truth is proved. Antidotes are then given to him to prevent any fatal effects. This ordeal is peculiar to the ´Súdra caste.
The fifth kind. An idol is first washed, and after worship is paid to it, incantations are pronounced over the water it was washed with, and three mouthfuls of it are given to the person under ordeal. If no misfortune happens to him within a fortnight the justness of his cause is acknowledged.
The sixth kind. Rice of the class called Sáṭhi1 is placed in an earthen vessel and kept all night. Incantations are next morning pronounced over it, and the person is made to eat it while facing the east. He is then required to spit upon a leaf of the pipal (Ficus religiosa), or the bhojpatra (Betula bhojpatra).2 If there should be any marks of blood, or the corners of the mouth swell, or symptoms of ague supervene, the untruth of his case is inferred.
The seventh kind. An earthen or stone vessel is taken, measuring sixteen fingers in length and breadth, and four fingers deep. Into this forty dáms weight of clarified butter or sesame-oil is poured and brought to boiling point, and one másha of gold, which is equal to four surkhs, is thrown into the boiling-oil. If the person can take out the gold with two fingers without being scalded, his cause is just.
The eighth kind. A symbol of Dharma, or Innocence, is fashioned of silver, and one of Adharma, or Guilt, of lead or iron; or the former word is written on a piece of a white cloth, or a leaf of the bhoj tree, and the latter on a piece of black cloth, and these are put into a jar which has never held water. The person under ordeal is then told to draw out one of these. If the symbol of innocence is drawn out, his cause is just. This ordeal is applicable in determining the righteousness of all four castes.
If a suit cannot be decided in one day, bail is taken; and a second suit may not be brought against the same person till the first is disposed of. When a claim is proved, the plaintiff is put in possession, and a fine of an amount equal to the value of the suit is exacted of the defendant. If the plaintiff loses his cause, he pays double the value of the suit.
Having cursorily explained the procedure regarding suits, evidence and ordeal, I now as briefly record the mode of adjudication under the eighteen titles of law-suits.
1. Non-payment of debt. If the debt be without deposit and the dispute be regarding the amount of interest, a Bráhman shall pay two per cent. (per mensem), a Kshatriya three, a Vaiśya four, and a ´Súdra five per cent. If there be security, only one-fourth of the above amounts are recoverable though a higher rate may have been agreed to. For risks by land-travel, up to ten per cent. is allowed, and not exceeding twenty-five per cent. for risks at sea. If interest has been agreed upon, and ten times the length of the stipulated period has elapsed, a claim shall not be allowed for more than double the principal.1 When the interest is paid on corn, the sum of the interest and principal should not be more than five times the principal. If the debtor is unable to pay, he must renew the obligation bringing the instrument2 and witnesses for its verification.
2. Deposits. If the receiver of a deposit make use of it without the owner's permission and delay its restoration when claimed, he shall forego half the interest due (in compensation). If he deny the deposit and there be no documentary evidence or witnesses, the judge may privately direct a third person to make a deposit with the same man and after some time to demand it back. If he acts as before, he shall be compelled to satisfy the first claim, or submit to trial by ordeal; but if the pledge be stolen by a thief, or if it be burnt, or washed away by water, or plundered by an enemy, restitution shall not be made. If he has dealt fraudulently with it, he shall make restitution and pay a similar amount as a fine.
3. Sale without ownership. If a man claim possession of property, it shall be restored to him free on proof of ownership, and the money taken back from the seller. And if it be sold privately or under its value, or by a person not entitled to do so, the judge shall fine the offender as he thinks proper. And if he brings forward the thief,1 it shall not be imputed as the crime of a thief, but a fine shall be exacted from him as a thief.
4. Partnership. If there be a dispute between partners and any formal deed of partnership exist and be proved, it shall be carried out in accordance with its terms; otherwise the profit and loss shall be divided according to the proportions of capital invested. If one of the partners dissipate the joint property or, without the consent of the other, remove it or otherwise fraudulently deal with it, he shall make it good to the other by a fine. Or if on the other hand, he make a profit, he shall not be required to give more than one-tenth to his partner. If one of them is guilty of fraud, he shall be ejected from partnership and the interest due to him shall be exacted by the judge. If one of the partners be left in charge of the joint property and any deficiency or injury occurs through his neglect, he shall make it good.
5. Reclaiming a gift. If a gift is made under the influence of anger, sickness, grief, fear, or as a bribe, or in jest, it may be recalled: also what has been given by a child, or a drunken or crazy man. In other cases it may not be reclaimed. And if the gift be made for a future benefit or in exchange, it may not, under any pretence, be resumed.
6. Wages, Hire, Rent. If wages, hire, or rent be received in advance, the agreement may not be violated. If it be broken, the offender shall be fined to the amount of double the sum; but if the money has not been actually paid, the fine shall extend only to the amount originally fixed. If a servant loses his master's property, he must make good the equivalent, but if it be taken from him by violence, he is not liable to restitution.
7. Revenue. If any one fail to pay the usual revenue, the whole of his effects shall be confiscated, and he shall be expelled the country.
8. Purchase and sale. A purchaser may on the day of purchase return the goods bought; on the second day he may return them on a forfeit of a twentieth of their cost: on the third day, of a tenth, after which they cannot be sent back.1 But a maid-servant may be sent back within one month; a slave, within fifteen days; corn, within ten days; jewels, within seven days; cattle in general, within five days; a milch-cow, within three days; iron, within one day; unless there be any stipulation to the contrary. The same conditions hold good with the seller, but he must sustain the loss in the same proportion as the excess payments of the purchaser in the opposite case.
9. Herdsmen. If through the neglect of a herdsman a beast is lost or dies or is injured, he must make good the loss. If cattle eat a grain-crop near a village or city, the herdsman is not amenable to fine. Sown-fields should be distant from a small village four hundred cubits; from one of moderate size, eight hundred, and from a large settlement, sixteen hundred cubits.2 If the trespass should occur through the neglect of the keeper, he must pay the value of the crop destroyed, otherwise the owner of the cattle is responsible. For a buffalo, a camel or donkey the fine is seven máshas of silver: for an ox, half the above: for a sheep or goat, half the fine for an ox. If the beast lies down to eat, the fine is doubled. An elephant, a horse, as well as cattle set at liberty as an act of piety, (it being the custom, eleven days after the death of a Bráhman, thirteen days after the death of a Kshatriya, sixteen after that of a Vaiśya, and thirty after the death of a ´Súdra, to let loose eight or four bulls, or one bull with a number of cows after branding them in a special manner) or a cow that has lately calved, or animals that have strayed, are not amenable to fine if they damage the crops. The same rule applies to royal preserves1 as to crops.
10. Boundaries. Disputes regarding boundaries may be adjudicated at any season save during the rains.2 The owners of land define their boundaries by burying charcoal, stones, potsherds, hair, bones, and the like that do not perish even after a long time; and sometimes a tree3 is made the boundary. The judge determines the dispute on the production of such evidence, and the witness of four, eight, or ten husbandmen, keepers,4 or hunters.
The witnesses shall wear red garments, place earth upon their heads and wear a string of red flowers round their necks, and shall swear that their good deeds may lose all merit if they lie. If there be no witnesses nor boundary mark, the judgment of the king shall determine the line.
11. Slander. This is of three kinds, viz.—(1). Reviling another to his face. (2). By insinuation and suggestion. (3). Reviling his mother, sister, or such other improper language. For the first two, if the abuse be from one of inferior towards one of a superior caste the fine is twelve-and-a-half dáms; to an equal, half that sum; towards an inferior, one-fourth. For the third kind, the fine is twenty-five dáms, if between equals, or if a Bráhman reviles a Kshatriya; but fifty, if the abuse is from a Kshatriya to a Bráhman. If a Vaiśya reviles a Bráhman he is fined seventy-five dáms, but in the opposite case the fine is twelve-and-a-half. If a ´Súdra thus offends against a Bráhman, he is fined one hundred dáms,5 a Bráhman reviling a ´Súdra pays six-and-a-quarter. A Vaiśya reviling a Kshatriya pays fifty, and the fine in the opposite case is twelve-and-a-half; and the same proportion between a Vaiśya and a ´Súdra. If one of the gods be reviled, or the king, or a Bráhman who has read the four Vedas, the fine is 540 dáms. If the abuse be directed against the people of a quarter, half of the above; and one-fourth if against the inhabitants of the city.
12. Assault. This is of four kinds: (1). Throwing earth, clay or filth upon any one. (2). Putting him in bodily fear by threatening him with the fist, a stick, or other weapon. (3). Striking with the hands or feet and the like. (4). Wounding with any weapon.
The first kind. In the first case, the fine is five dáms, but if filth is thrown, ten, provided the parties are equals; but twice as much if it be an inferior against a superior, and only half in the opposite case.
The second kind. Threatening with the hand, &c., five dáms, and (with stick or other weapon) between equals, eleven; between superiors and inferiors, as above.
The third kind. If the blow cause a swelling or pain in the limb, 270 dáms. If by an inferior against a superior, the hand or foot, or other offending member shall be cut off, or a suitable fine inflicted. In the instance of a Kshatriya against a Bráhman, the fine is 540 dáms; a Vaiśya against a Bráhman, 1,080; a ´Súdra against a Bráhman, 2,160; a Vaiśya against a Kshatriya or a ´Súdra against a Vaiśya 540; a ´Súdra against a Kshatriya, 1,080; a Bráhman against a Kshatriya, 135; or against a Vaiśya, 67½, or against a ´Súdra, 33¾; a Kshatriya against a Vaiśya, 135; against a ´Súdra 67½.
The fourth kind. Between those of like caste if the skin be abraded, fifty dáms, and if the flesh is cut, twenty tolahs of gold, and if a bone be broken, the offender is banished. If an inferior against a higher caste, the fine is doubled, and in the opposite case, it shall be a-half. If treatment is necessary, the offender shall pay the expenses of medicine and daily ‘keep’ till the injured man be restored to health.
In the case of a sheep, autelope1 and the like, if there be hurt, the fine is eight dáms; if it be rendered useless, the value must be paid to the owner, with a fine of 125 dáms; and twice as much, if it be killed. For a horse, camel, or ox, the fine is also double. When damage is done to valuable plants, the value must be paid to the owner and a fine of ten dáms, but eight dáms if they be of small value.2
13. Theft. If any one steal above one hundred tolahs of gold or silver or any valuables up to this amount, or more than 66⅔ mans of corn, or the child or the wife of any person of distinction, he shall be liable to the punishment of death. If the amount be less than one hundred and more than fifty tolahs, he shall suffer the loss of his hand. If fifty or less, he shall pay eleven times the amount as a fine. The same applies to corn. In all cases the equivalent of the amount stolen shall be made good to the owner, and if the thief is unable to pay, he shall work out the amount in menial service. In other cases of theft, corporal punishment, imprisonment or fine, is at the discretion of the judge.
14. Violence with bloodshed. If a man of inferior caste kill a man of a higher caste, the penalty is death. If a Bráhman slay a Bráhman, his entire estate shall be confiscated, his head shaved, his forehead branded and he shall be banished from the kingdom. If a Bráhman slay a Kshatriya, he shall pay a fine of 1,000 cows and a bull; if he slay a Vaiśya, 100 cows and a bull, or if a ´Súdra, 10 cows and a bull. The same rule applies to Kshatriyas and Vaiśyas. If a ´Súdra slay a ´Súdra, he shall be fined 500 cows and a bull. If the murderer be not found, the people of the city, village, or quarter in which the murder was committed shall produce some of his family or pay in default any fine that the king may inflict.
15. Adultery. Commerce between a woman and a man other than
her husband, is of three kinds: (1). When they converse and jest together
in private. (2). When a present is sent to the house of the other. (3).
When they meet and criminal intercourse ensues. In the second case, a
fine may be inflicted at the discretion of the king. The third is of two
kinds, viz., with a maiden and one who is not a maiden. The former may be
dishonoured
16. Altercation between man and wife. If after marriage a man discovers any natural defect in his wife, he may put her away without remedy on her part, but the woman's father shall be fined. If a man offer one daughter in marriage and substitute another in her place, he shall be compelled to give both. When a man has journeyed on a pilgrimage to holy shrines and is absent beyond the term agreed upon, the wife shall wait at home for eight years whatever her position in life may be.3 If he has gone abroad for the sake of knowledge or fame or wealth, she shall wait six years: if he journeys to seek another wife, three years. At the expiration of these periods, she is at liberty to leave her husband's house to obtain a livelihood. The husband on his return from abroad, if he wishes to put her away on account of her departure, is not permitted to do so. If the wife does not observe the condition of these periods, the husband is at liberty to put her away. If the husband fall sick and the wife does not minister to him, he may not, on his recovery, for this cause divorce her, but he may refuse intercourse with her for three months and deprive her of all that she possesses,4 after which period he shall be reconciled to her. With Bráhmans, divorce does not take place but a husband may avoid the sight and presence of his wife: her maintenance must nevertheless be continued. The wife may not take another husband. If he be guilty of great crimes or have any contagious disease; the wife is at liberty to separate from him. If a Bráhman have a wife of each of the four castes, he shall assign them their respective social functions. In religious ceremonies, and personal attendance such as anointing with oil and adorning1 him and simi!ar duties, he must employ only his own caste.
17. Inheritance. While a son lives, no other relation or kinsman shares the estate except the wife who is equal to the son. If there be neither son nor wife, the unmarried daughter inherits. If there be also no daughter, the mother is the heir.
If there be no mother, the father takes possession.
If there be no father alive, his brother shall be heir.
In default of a brother, the brother's son inherits.
In default of a brother's son, the estate is divided amongst the surviving kindred.
If he leave no relations, the teacher inherits, or in default of the teacher, his fellow pupils.2
In the absence of all these the estate lapses to the Crown.
18. Gambling. Whosoever plays with false dice shall be banished. If he refuse to pay his stake, it shall be taken from him, and of his winnings, the king shall receive one-tenth,3 and one-twentieth shall be taken for dues.4
To each of these eighteen titles there are many illustrations, and conflicting opinions are recorded. I content myself with this short exposition.
Having reviewed the various branches of learning in their scientific aspects, I proceed to some account of their practical modes of life.
Among the Bráhmans, the period of individual life, after the intelligence is to some degree matured, is divided into four portions, to each of which is assigned its special important duties. These periods severally receive the name of A´śrama.
THE FIRST PERIOD is the Brahma-charya, or religious studentship. Investiture with the sacred thread is regarded by the Bráhmans as the first principle of their creed, and the three superior castes do not acknowledge the right of due membership without it. With a Bráhman it must be made in the eighth year, or if this auspicious time is suffered to elapse, it may be performed up to sixteen years of age. A Kshatriya may be invested between eleven and twenty-two years of age, and a Vaiśya from twelve to twenty-four, but a Súdra is not considered a fitting recipient. It is imperative that the investiture should take place for each caste within the prescribed periods from which date the initiation is reckoned, otherwise there is exclusion from caste. The Bráhman receives the sacred string from his father or teacher, and the two other castes from a Bráhman. None but a Bráhman may twist the string, and that which he wears for the first time must be twisted by his father or teacher or by himself. The teacher's son has also the same privilege. Three strands, in length ninety-six times the circumference of the fist, are united and twisted, making a twist of nine strands. This is again folded into three without twisting and secured by a knot at each end. This is the sacred thread. It is placed on the left shoulder and carried across the body to the right side, and thus the length is from the shoulder to the thumb of the right hand. It is worn diagonally like a belt. A Bráhman wears five together, the other two castes, but three. Some authorities say that a cotton thread is for the special use of the Bráhman, woollen for the Kshatriya and hempen thread for the Vaiśya. Similarly, a thong of deer-skin, three fingers in breadth, is worn with it but not of the same length. A Bráhman uses the skin of the black antelope; a Kshatriya the skin of any other kind of deer, and a Vaiśya of a goat. At this period they also wear round the waist a girdle of a particular kind of grass called in Sanskrit Muñja (Saccharum Munja).
He next learns the gáyatrí,1 which are certain words in praise of the sun, resembling the kalimah or profession of faith in Islám. He also receives a staff of paláśa wood (Butea frondosa), but for the other two castes it is made of some other wood.
He leaves his father's house and chooses a lodging near his teacher, learns his letters and begins reading the Vedas. He first reads that Veda which it is his special duty to learn, and then the remaining three. They relate that when the sage Vyása divided the Vedas into four parts, he instructed one of his pupils in each, from which time the descendants and the pupils of these respectively read their own Veda first. The Vedas are never read during the first degree of the moon's course (pariwá), nor during the eighth, fourteenth, fifteenth, or thirtieth, nor on the night of the fourth, eighth, or fourteenth, nor during an eclipse of the sun, but any of the other acts may be performed at those times.
When a Bráhman goes to relieve the necessities of nature, he hangs the sacred thread upon his right ear, and on such an occasion by day, turns his face to the north and by night to the south. He washes himself five times, each time first mixing the water with earth, and then washes the left hand ten times in the same manner, and next both hands seven times, and lastly both his feet in the same way. After he urines, he washes the part as above described and the left hand three times and each hand and foot once. From the day of his investiture till sixteen years of age, this number of purifications must be observed and doubled after he exceeds that age. Next, in a chosen spot, he should sit down on his haunches facing the east or north, keeping his knees erect and with his hand between them should drink three fills of his palm. A Bráhman should swallow as much water as will reach his chest: a Kshatriya as much as will suffice to reach his throat; a Vaiśya, as far as the root of his tongue. A ´Súdra may drink but once. He then uses a tooth stick (miswák) twelve fingers breadth in length, taking a fresh one every day.
He may not wear more than four coverings for his person. These are: (1). Langoṭí, or waist-cloth, which is worn to cover only two parts of his body. (2). A small lung1 worn above the other. (3). A sheet without suture, over his shoulders. (4). A small cap for his head. He should bathe before sunrise, wearing only the sacred thread, the girdle of múnja, and the langoṭi. He first takes up a little water in his right hand, saying: “I pray that any fault I have committed may be put away from me.”1 After which he throws the water away. With this intention his ablutions are entered upon. Then he rubs himself all over with earth, and if he be in a river, he dips three times, otherwise, he pours water over himself thrice and rubs his body all over with his hands. He then pronounces the name of God, and taking water three times in the hollow of his hand sips a little and begins to repeat certain prayers, at the conclusion of which he continues sprinkling water upon his head. He next closes his nostrils with two fingers and dashing water over his face, repeats other prayers and dips or throws water over himself thrice. Then wetting both his hands, he sprinkles his forehead, chest and both shoulders seven times, and taking up water with joined hands, casts it towards the sun eight times, repeating special prayers, and sips some water thrice. He next performs the práṇáyáma as described in the section on the Pátañjala system.2 The ablutions are meritorious in degree according to their performance in the following order—in a river, a tank, a well, or a house. He then clothes himself. If he be a follower of Ráma, he marks his forehead horizontally with ashes; if of Kṛishṇa,3 he draws the sectarial mark in twelve places, viz., on his forehead, his breast, his navel, the right and left sides thereof, his right and left shoulders, the two lobes of his ears, his loins, the crown of his head and the throat. The clay of the Ganges is considered the most efficacious for this purpose but saffron and the like are also used. A ´Súdra marks his forehead with only a circle. After this he takes his staff and slings across his shoulders the deer-skin and occupies himself with the Sandhyá, which consists of certain religious exercises, sprinkling and sipping water, and the like.4 Next comes the lighting of the fire and certain burnt offerings are made which is called the Homa sacrifice.
When these ceremonies are concluded, he goes to his teacher and gains merit by waiting upon him and reading the Vedas. At midday, the ablution and the ceremonies aforesaid are repeated with some variation and some increase in their number. When these are over he sets out begging alms and solicits from three, five, or seven houses, but avoids a ´Súdra. After cooking a sufficient meal he carries it to his teacher and with his permission, eats it. He precedes his meal with prayers and a few ceremonies and eats in silence and then repeats other prayers. When it is near dusk, he again performs the Sandhyá and Homa rites and occupies himself with reading. After a watch of the night has elapsed, he sleeps upon the ground, making his couch of straw or a tiger's skin or deer-skin or the like. He should avoid honey, betel-leaf, and perfumes. He should shave his head, keeping a tuft only, but the hair of the other parts of the body should be suffered to grow. He should not use collyrium nor anoint himself with oil, and should abstain from singing, dancing and gaming. He should not kill any animal nor have any commerce with women nor eat of anything not tasted first by his teacher. He should abstain from falsehood, anger, avarice and envy, and not defile his tongue by speaking ill of any one though he deserve it, and make his days meritorious by practices of piety. In prayer he should turn to the east or north and he should not look towards the sun in its rising or setting. Some pass forty-eight years in the Brahmacharya stage, allowing twelve years for the study of each Veda. Some take only five years, and others till the Vedas are learnt. Others again spend their lives in this manner and undergo austerities in the hope of final liberation.
The Second Period is the Gárhasthya, or a state in which the duties of a householder are observed and the person so engaged is called Gṛihastha. When the Brahmachárin has completed his studies, if he feels called to the religious life and his heart is estranged from the world, nothing can more conduce to his welfare than the endeavour to attain eternal bliss, but if he has no such vocation, he should seek the consent of his teacher and, having obtained permission, return to his father's house. He then puts away all but his sacred thread, but continues the oblations and some other ceremonies, the number of the oblations being the same as during his period of pupilage as Brahmachárin. If he be a Bráhman, he wears a turban, and a sheet eight cubits in length and two in breadth is put on in the fashion of a loin-cloth, one end being passed between his legs and fastened behind to the waist-piece, and the other end brought forward and tied similarly in front. Another sheet, five cubits long and two broad, is worn over the shoulders, and this may have a suture. A householder of other castes wears different garments. He now marries in the manner that shall be presently described.
The householder repeats certain prayers and thus performs the Homa sacrifice. He takes in his hand a stick of pipal or palás wood, a span in length and burns it in the Homa fire. Another stick of the same kind is taken and passed into the fire and reserved, and when the next Homa takes place, this stick is burnt and another like the first is scorched and reserved, and this is continued till the time of the Agni-hotra.1 This is a special kind of Homa or oblation. A pipal stick is set alight by means of two other sticks and a cord forcibly worked by the hand, and the fire is placed in three round earthen vessels. The figure of a tortoise is then made of a ser and-a-quarter of rice-flour, and the three portions are cooked in one lump and dressed with oil, and part of this is thrown into the three fires as an oblation to the deities, and the remainder is given to Bráhmans. One of the three portions of the sacrificial fire is reserved, and throughout his whole life, the daily Homa oblation is made with that fire; the oblations cast into the fire in the name of the deities consist of any barley, rice, clarified butter, milk, wheat, that may be available, and once every fifteen days in the first degree of the moon's course he carries out the ceremony as before. The ceremony of the Agni-hotra may not take place till the period has elapsed between the fourth day after his marriage and that on which the bride leaves her father's house (to join her husband).2 With the exception of the ´Súdra and the Mlechchha, the rest of the people come generally under this second denomination. Four ghaṛis before daybreak, the householder awakes and passes some little time on his bed in prayer. He divides his day into eight portions, thus profitably employing his time.
First, when the rays of the sun appear, he refreshes his sight with its lustre, and next by looking upon fire, water, gold, a just prince, a Bráhman, a cow, and clarified butter. If none of these eight be present, he must look upon the palms of his hands, and proceed to wash his mouth and perform the Sandhyá ceremonies. The second portion of his time he must employ in study and occupy himself in the interpretation of the Vedas and other branches of knowledge. The third he spends in attendance on his prince, and engages in state affairs. The fourth is occupied with his own household. The fifth, which is about the entry of noon, he spends in ablutions and the Sandhyá ceremonies, and taking up water in both hands, offers it to the deities, the great Ṛishis and (the manes of) his ancestors, and repeats certain prayers. This libation is called tarpaṇa. During the sixth, he prays to Vishṇu, Mahádeva, the Sun, Durga, and G aṇeśa. This is called Deva-pújá, or worship of the gods, as will be more fully described hereafter. In the seventh, he casts into the fire some of his food as an offering to the gods, and makes the Homa sacrifice. Next follows the Atithi-pújá (or the religious reception of a guest). He waits expectantly for any hungry person, and when he meets him, treats him with respect and satisfies his need, after which he himself eats, and this act is called the Vaiśvadeva-pújá (or offering to all deities). A Bráhman obtains his food in the following way. When the husbandman has reaped his field and the poor have gleaned their fill, the Bráhman then follows in quest, and takes what he can find, and if he does not feel content with this, he may receive from his own people; and if this is insufficient, he may accept whatever is given to him without solicitation by another Bráhman, a Kshatriya, or a Vaiśya. If this is not his choice, he may beg; and if he will not submit to this, he may cultivate land. Trade is considered more objectionable. A Bráhman should not keep more than twelve days' supply of food, but to others an abundance is permitted, as has been explained. In the eighth, he listens to the recital of the lives of former holy men and performs the ceremonies of the Homa and Sandhyá. If he is hungry, he takes his meal. He then occupies himself till the first watch of the night, in studying works of philosophy and reading the lives of ancient sages, after which he goes to rest. Such are the means by which he profitably employs his day and night. Other ceremonies performed during times of eclipse and festivals, are numerous. Those practised by the Kshatriyas and Vaiśyas who follow their special occupations, are fewer as shall be presently described.
The third period is that of the Vánaprastha or anchorite, a name given also to the person so engaged. This is forbidden to a ´Súdra.
When one (of the other castes) arrives at old age, or has a grandson, he may wisely give up the management of his household to his son or to a relation, abandon worldly concerns, and leaving the city, retire into the desert. He may there build himself a hermitage, and putting away the outward pleasures of sense, practise mortification of his body in preparation for his last journey. If his wife, through affection, desire to accompany him, he may suffer it and not deny her, but he must resist all carnal inclinations. Here he preserves the sacred fire of his daily sacrifice and clothes himself with the leaves of trees or with skins, and he may wear a coarse loin-cloth. He should never cut his hair or his nails and morning, noon, and evening he should perform the prescribed ablutions and the Sandhyá. Like the Gṛihastha, he should perform the Homa sacrifice morning and evening, but his ablutions are three times more numerous, in as much as he performs them ten times to the other's three. He must always keep his head bowed down and follow the instructions given in the Pátañjala system and carefully control the emotions of the spirit. He should employ his time in reading the Vedas, sleep only at night, and lie on the bare ground. During the four months of the hot season he sits between five fires, lighting four about him, and having the sun burning over head. During the four months of the rains he should live upon a stage sustained by four poles, so that he may not be in danger from a flood nor injure minute animals by his movements, nor must he protect himself from the weather. During the four months of the cold season, he should pass the night sitting in cold water. He should always observe the Chándráyaṇa fast and eat only at night. He is permitted to keep a store of food sufficient for a year and should accept nothing from others, living on grain and gathering wild fruits that have fallen. He eats nothing that is cooked, but he may moisten his food. If he can obtain naught else, he may beg of other anchorites, and failing them, he may go into the town to seek the necessaries of life but he must not remain there.
If he is unable to live in this manner, he abandons all sustenance and journeys onwards to the east or north till his bodily powers are exhausted, or he throws himself into fire or water in self destruction, or casts himself down from a precipice and thus ends his life. They consider that heaven is the reward of this course and final liberation is dependent on the profession of asceticism. What is understood by some as mukti, or final liberation, is, that in a former birth, this stage of abandonment of the world had been attained.
The fourth period is Sannyása, which is an extraordinary state of austerity that nothing can surpass, and which when duly carried out is rewarded by final liberation. Such a person His Majesty calls Sannyásí.1
After the completion of the third stage, and the habit of self-denial in all sensual pleasures is acquired, the disciple first obtains the permission of his teacher and then quits his wife, shaves his head, beard, and the hair of his face and abandons all worldly concerns. His teacher presents him with a loin-cloth and some covering and accepts a trifle in return. He does not occupy himself with reading, but applies himself entirely to spiritual contemplation. He passes his life alone in the wilds, performs his ablutions morning, noon, and evening, and is scrupulous in self-purification and practises the duties described in the Pátañjala system, carrying them out after his own method. He performs the Sandhyá and then repeats from one to twelve thousand times the word Om, which is the beginning of the Vedas. At the fourth ghaṛí before the close of day, he goes into the city, and repeats the name of God, begging at three, five, or seven houses of Bráhmans, but does not take more than a handful of food from each. If they put it into his hand he straightway eats it, or if they throw it on the ground, he takes it up with his mouth or gathers it in a cloth and eats it after cleansing it in a stream. He then retires to a place where there is no sign of the cooking of food or lighting of a fire. He avoids a ´Súdra or a Mlechchha and if he is not quickly supplied with food, he does not wait. After eating he directs his eyes to the tip of his nose or to his brow and passes a brief space in meditation. He walks with his head and feet bare and does not remain in any one place. If he is compelled to pass through a city or village, he does not remain in the former more than three days nor in the latter more than one. In the rains he abides in one spot and thus is his life passed. Some adopt the course of religious abandonment both during the first and second periods.
Some say that the first period extends to twenty-five years, and the same is allowed for the three other periods. The second is lawful to all the four castes; the first and third to all but ´Súdras, but the fourth is exclusively for Bráhmans.1
The Hindu sages declare that whoever seeks to do the will of God, must devote certain works exclusively to purposes of worship and the first six of the nine schools already alluded to, comprise this under four heads.
The First is—
or
Divine Worship.
Since according to their belief, the Supreme Deity can assume an elemental form without defiling the skirt of the robe of omnipotence, they first make various idols of gold and other substances to represent this ideal and gradually withdrawing the mind from this material worship, they become meditatively absorbed in the ocean of His mysterious Being. Sixteen ceremonies conduce to this end. After the performance of the Homa and Sandhyá obligations, the devotee sits down facing the east or north, and taking up a little rice and water sprinkles (the idol) with the intention of beginning the worship of God. Then follows the Kalasa-pújá or pitcher-worship. The water of the pitcher which is required for the ceremony is venerated after a special manner.1 He next performs the ´Sankha-pújá, wherein the white shell is venerated which is filled with water to be poured over the idol. Next follows the Ghaṅnṭá-pújá, in which the gong is plastered with sandalwood unguent and worshipped. When these are concluded, he sprinkles a little rice with the intention of soliciting the manifestation of the deity. Such is the first of the sixteen ceremonies. (2). The intention is made that the prayer of the supplicant may be accepted. A throne of metal or other substance is placed as a seat for the deity. (3). He pours water into a vessel that he may wash his feet when he comes, it being the custom of the country to wash the feet of superiors when they enter a house. (4). He throws down water thrice on the ground to represent the rinsing of the mouth by that mystical being, as it is also a custom of this country among the more refined classes to offer this service to a superior before meal-time. (5). Sandal, flowers, betel, and rice are thrown into water and thus offered. (6). The idol is lifted up with its seat and carried to another place. With the right hand a white conch-shell is held while with the left a gong is struck and the water is poured over the idol which is then washed. (7). The idol is then dried with a cloth and placed upon its throne and it is dressed in such costly robes as circumstances can furnish. (8). It is then invested with the sacred string. (9). The sectarial mark is next made in twelve places with sandal. (10.) Flowers or leaves are then strewn over it. (11). It is fumigated with perfumes. (12). A lamp is lit with clarified butter. (13). Food according to ability is then placed on a table before the idol, which is then distributed to people as the idol's leavings. (14). Is the Namas-kára which is a posture of supplication. He repeats the praises of God with heart and tongue and falls prostrate with his whole body like a staff. This prostration is called daṇḍa-vat (staff-like); he so prostrates himself that eight of his limbs touch the earth,—the two knees, the two hands, the forehead, the nose, and the right and left cheeks. This is called Sáshṭángá, (eight members). Many perform one of these two obeisances in supplication before the great. (15). Circumambulating the idol several times. (16). Standing like a slave before it, and taking leave.
In each of these ceremonies, prayers are repeated and particular acts are performed. Some consider only five of these ceremonies from the 7th to the 13th, as imperative, others practise more; except a ´Súdra and a Sannyásin, all others perform this worship thrice daily.
Worship is of six kinds: (1). In the heart. (2). Making the sun a means of divine adoration. (3). Causing fire to serve the purpose of spiritual recollection. (4). Worshipping in presence of water. (5). Cleaning a spot of ground as a place for worship. (6). Making an idol a representative object of prayer. They also make images of those who have attained to God and account their veneration as a means of salvation.
The Second kind is—
By this the favour of the deities is obtained and it becomes the means of securing the blessing of God. The term Jág is also used. Páka-yajṅna (simple or domestic sacrifice) is making the Homa in the name of the deities and bestowing charity before taking food. This is variously performed. Japa-yajṅna is the muttering of incantations and the names of God. These two, like the first, are of daily practice. Vidhi-yajṅna or ceremonial act of worship is of numerous kinds, in each of which important conditions are prescribed, large sums of money expended and many animals sacrificed. One of these is the Aśvamedha, or horse-sacrifice, which is performed by sovereign princes. When its necessary preparations are completed, a white horse having the right ear black, is brought out and consecrated by certain incantations, and (being turned loose) it is followed in its march by an army for conquest which in a short time subdues the world and the king of every territory (which it enters) tenders submission and joins the victorious forces. They pretend that whoever performs this sacrifice a hundred times, becomes lord of heaven. Many are said to have attained this rank and marvellous legends are told of them. If he cannot perform that number he obtains an eminent place in that region.2 Another is the Rája-súya-yajṅna, one of the conditions attached to which is the presence of all the princes of the world at the great festival, each of whom is appointed to a particular duty, and the service at the banquet can be performed only by them. Whoever has twice inaugurated this ceremony becomes lord of heaven, and many (are said) to have obtained this happiness. There are manifold kinds of these sacrifices, but the two herein mentioned must suffice.
The Third kind is—
or
Alms giving.
There are numerous forms of this meritorious precept and various are the modes by which the provision for man's last journey is secured. The following sixteen are accounted the most important:—
(1). Tulá-dána or the weighing of the person against gold, silver and other valuables. (2). Hiraṇyagarbha-dána: an idol of Brahmá is fashioned of gold, having four faces in each of which are two eyes, two ears, a mouth and nose. It must have four hands, and the rest of the members are after the form of men. It must be 72 fingers high and 48 in breadth. Its weight may vary between a minimum of 33 tolahs and 4 máshas and a maximum of 3,410 tolahs. It is decked with jewels, and incantations are pronounced over it. (3). Brahmáṇḍa-dána, or alms of the egg of Brahmá.1 An egg is made of gold in two parts which when joined together have an oval shape. Its weight varies between a minimum of 66 tolahs and 7 máshas and a maximum of 3,633 tolahs and 4 máshas. Its length and breadth may not be less than twelve fingers nor greater than one hundred. (4). Kalpa-taru-dána. This is the name of a tree2 (taru) which is one of the fourteen treasures brought out of the sea, as will be related. A similar tree is made of gold, and birds are represented sitting on its branches. It should weigh not less than 12 tolahs, and the maximum weight as above. (5). Go-sahasra-dána, is the alms of a thousand cows with one bull, having the tips of their horns, according to ability, plated with gold or silver and their humps covered with copper, with bells and tassels of yâk's hair round their necks, and pearls in their tails. (6). Hiraṇya-kámadhenu-dána.3 A golden cow and calf are made; they may be of three kinds; the first weighs 3,410 tolas; the second, the half of this weight, and the third weighs one-fourth. (7). Hiraṇyáśva-dána. A golden horse is fashioned weighing from ten tolahs to 3,633 tolahs and four máshas. (8). Hiraṇyáśva-ratha. A chariot of gold of the first of the above-mentioned weights is made with four wheels and from four to eight horses weighing from ten to 6,606 tolahs and eight máshas. (9). Hemahasti-ratha-dána is an alms of a chariot of gold drawn by four elephants. Its weight is from sixteen tolahs and eight máshas to the maximum aforesaid. (10). Pañcha-lángala-dána is a gift of five ploughs of gold of the above weight. (11.) Dhara-dána, is a figure of the surface of the earth made of gold, upon which are represented mountains, woods and seas, weighing not less than sixteen tolahs, eight máshas, and not more than 3,633 tolahs. (12). Viśva-chakra-dána. A complete radiate of eight petals is made of gold representing the entire dome of the heavens, and is of four weights, viz. 3,333 tolahs, four máshas: half of the above: one-fourth: 66 tolahs, 8 máshas. (13). Kalpa-latadána is in the shape of a creeper. Ten tendrils are made of gold, weighing from sixteen to 3,330 tolahs, four máshas. (14). Sapta-ságara-dána. The seven seas are represented in gold weighing not less than twenty-three tolahs, four máshas, and not more than the weight above given. The length and breadth of each of these are twenty-one fingers, or the half thereof. The first sea is filled with salt; the second, with milk; the third, with clarified butter; the fourth, with molasses; the fifth, with butter-milk; the sixth, with sugar; the seventh with Ganges-water. (15). Ratna-dhenu-dána, the representation of a cow with a calf made up of jewels. (16). Mahábhuta-ghaṭa-dána,1 is a representation in gold of the figure of a man surmounted by the head of an elephant, which is called Gaṇeśa. Its weight is from sixteen tolahs, eight máshas to 3,330 tolahs, four máshas.
In some works the first or Tulá-dána, the weight whereof should be not less than 106 tolahs, eight máshas, nor more than 833 tolahs, four máshas, is alone given, and the remaining forms are omitted. There is also some difference of opinion regarding the distribution. Some give only to the A´chárya or teacher who shares the alms with others, while some bestow it also upon other Bráhmans.
For each of these forms of charity, there are various injunctions. Although no distinct season is fixed, they are regarded as of more efficacy in times of eclipse and when the sun enters Capricorn and on some other occasions. Strange legends are told of them and of their results, as for instance regarding the first kind, if the giver weighs himself against gold, he will remain in paradise for a thousand million kalpas and advance from degree to degree of beatitude, and when he re-assumes human form will become a mighty monarch.
The Fourth kind is—
or
Ceremonies in honour of deceased ancestors.
The charity is given in the name of deceased ancestors and is of various kinds, but four are specially observed: (1). On the day of decease and its anniversary. (2). On the first day of the first quarter of the new moon. (3). On the sixteenth lunar day of the month of Kuár, (Sept. Oct.). (4). Bestowing charity in a place of worship in the name of the deceased.
The manner of performing it is to bestow money and gifts in kind, dressed and undressed, on Bráhmans in the name of father, grandfather and great grandfather including their wives, and in the same way on the three directly ascending male ancestors of the mother and their wives. All four castes may perform this ceremony.
When these four duties of worship, sacrifice, alms-giving and commemoration of the deceased, as now described, are performed, the worship of God is accounted to be perfectly carried out, and without them it is not effected.
or
Incarnations of the Deity.
They believe that the Supreme Being in the wisdom of His counsel, assumes an elementary form of a special character for the good of the creation, and many of the wisest of the Hindus accept this doctrine. Such a complete incarnation is called Púrṇávatára, and that principle which in some created forms is scintillant with the rays of the divinity and bestows extraordinary powers is called Anśávatára or partial incarnation. These latter will not be here considered.
Of the first kind they say that in the whole four Yugas, ten manifestations will take place, and that nine have up to the present time appeared.
or
Fish-Incarnation.
The Deity was herein manifested under the form of a fish. They say that in the Dráviḍá1 country at the extremity of the Dekhan in the city of Bhadrávatí, during the Satya Yuga on the eleventh lunar day of the month of Phálguna (Feb.-March), Rájá Manu, having withdrawn himself from all worldly concerns, and being then ten hundred thousand years of age, lived in the practice of great austerities. He was performing his ablutions on the banks of the river Kṛitamála when a fish came into his hand and said “preserve me.” It remained in his hand a day and night and as it increased in size, he put it into a cup, and when it grew larger, he placed it in a pitcher. When the latter could not contain it, he put it into a well and thence transferred it to a lake and afterwards to the Ganges. As the Ganges could not hold it, he gave it place in the ocean, and when it filled the ocean, the Rájá recognised the origin of the miracle and worshipped it and prayed for a revelation. He heard the following answer: “I am the Supreme Being. I have assumed the form of this creature for thy salvation and that of a few of the elect. After seven days the world will be destroyed and a flood shall cover the earth. Get thou into a certain ark with a few of the righteous together with the divine books and choice medicinal herbs and fasten the ark to this horn which cometh out of me.” The deluge continued one million, seven hundred and twenty-eight thousand years after which it subsided.1
or
Tortoise-Incarnation.
In the Satya Yuga in the light half of the month of Kárttika (Oct.-Nov.), on the twelfth lunar day, the Creator manifested himself in the shape of a tortoise. They relate that the deities wished to obtain the water of immortality after the manner of butter by churning the ocean of milk. Instead of a churning-stick, they used the largest of the mountains, Mandara. From its excessive weight the mountain sunk into the ocean, and great were their difficulties. The Deity assumed this shape and bore up the mountain on his back and the gods obtained their desire.
By this miraculous act, fourteen priceless objects were brought up from the sea:—(1). Lakshmí, the goddess of fortune, appeared as a bride and thus a source of happiness to all creatures was obtained. (2). Kaustubha-maṇi or the wonderful jewel Kaustubha, of extraordinary lustre and in value beyond price. (3). Parijátaka-vṛiksha, the miraculous tree Parijátaka1 whose flowers never fade and whose fragrance fills the universe. Some say that it grants all desires. It is called also Kalpa-vṛiksha.2 (4). Sura, (the goddess of) wine. (5). Dhanvantari, the physician (of the gods) who could heal the sick and raise the dead to life. In his right hand, he held a leech and in his left (a branch of) the myrobalan tree.3 His Majesty considers that these two should be regarded separately and the number of treasures be accounted sixteen. (6). Chandra-maṇi, the (moon-gem or) world-illumining moon. (7). Káma-dhenu, the miraculous cow which gave forth from her udders the gratification of every wish. (8). Airávata, the white elephant (of Indra) with four tusks. (9). ´Sankha, the white conch-shell of wondrous sound that bestowed victory on whomsoever possessed it. (10). Visha, deadly poison. (11). Amṛita, the water of life. (12). Rambhá, the nymph, beautiful and sweet-dispositioned.4 (13). A´śva, the horse with eight heads. (14). Sárangadhanus, or the bow Sáranga of which the unerring arrow carried to any distance.
After producing these inestimable treasures, the tortoise descended into the earth and is believed still to exist.
or
Boar-Incarnation.
In the Satya Yuga, on the day of the full moon in the month of Kárttika (Oct.-Nov.) in the city of Brahmávarta5 near Nimishára6 and Ayodhya, this manifestation took place. One of the Daityas named Hiraṇyáksha1 had passed a long period in the practice of austerities and the worship of God. One day the Deity appeared to him in visible form and asked him what he desired. Rejoiced at these gracious words, he enumerated many noxious animals and prayed for exemption from their injury and that he might be monarch of the whole universe. Shortly after he obtained his wishes, and dispossessing Indra of the sovereignty of heaven, committed its charge to one of his own kindred. The deities and Brahmá hastened to Vishṇu and besought his aid. As in the request for exemption the name of the boar had been omitted, they received this answer, “I will manifest myself under that form and deprive him of life.”
Soon afterwards, Vishṇu took this shape and entering his capital, destroyed him. This is pointed out as having taken place at Soron.2 The earth was again peopled with the virtuous and Indra recovered his sovereignty of the world above.
The period of this manifestation was a thousand years.
or
Man-Lion-Incarnation.
This was a form from the head to the waist like a lion and the lower parts resembling a man, and was manifested in the Satya Yuga on the fourteenth of the light half of the month of Vaiśákha (April-May), in the city of Hiraṇyapúra now commonly called Hindaun3 near the metropolis of Agra. They say that Hiraṇyakaśipu of the Daitya race spent many long years in a life of austerity until the Deity appeared to him and asked his desire. His first prayer was that his death might not take place by night nor by day, and next, he begged protection against all noxious animals which he severally named, and, lastly, that he might obtain sovereignty over the realms above and below. His request was granted. The deities yielded submission to him and the world was filled with the unrighteous. The chief spirits implored aid of Vishṇu through Brahmá and their prayer was heard. It is said that Hiraṇyakaśipu had a son called Prahláda who, like the deities, worshipped the Supreme God and followed the path of truth in spite of his father, who though he subjected his son to much persecution, was unable to turn him from that course. One evening his father asked him where the Supreme Being dwelt. He replied that he was omnipresent and to explain his meaning, pointed to a pillar in which also he declared the Deity to be. The king in folly smote it with his sword, and by a miracle from heaven, the above form came forth from it and tore him to pieces at the interval of time between night and day, and his death was caused by an animal of a specially-created type. It is said that this divine form asked Prahláda to choose some boon. The great-souled youth prayed only for final liberation (jívan-mukti), which is eternal life freed from the defilement of corporal existence and from the bonds of joy and sorrow. This manifestation continued one hundred years.1
or
Dwarf-Incarnation.
In the Tretá Yuga, on the twelfth day of the light half of the month of Bhádrapada (H. Bhádoṇ, Aug.-Sept.) in the city of Sonbhadrá on the banks of the Narbadá, this new manifestation was born of Aditi in the house of Kaśyapa, the son of Maríchi,2 the son of the legendary Brahmá. This incarnation continued a thousand years. Bali of the Daitya race underwent an austere penance to obtain the sovereignty of the three worlds. The Bountiful Giver of all desires revealed himself and granted his wish and Bali thus obtained a mighty dominion. Having subdued the throned princes of the gods, he left them in possession of their principalities. He performed many sacrifices, but neglected to present to the deities their customary offerings. The latter, through the intercession of Brahmá, implored Vishṇu to dethrone him who comforted them by revealing the issue of events. In the same year this moon-orb displayed its radiance, and when the child grew in wisdom, in conformity with rule and custom he was placed under the tuition of the sage Bharadwája. With his preceptor he attended the sacrifice which the king had inaugurated at Kurukshetra, and after the royal custom, Bali asked him what boon he desired. He replied, “I ask of thee as much ground as I can cover with three steps.” The king in amazement rejoined, “Is so slight a gift craved of a monarch so illustrious and powerful?” When at last, after some debate he consented, the first step was so great that it covered the earth and the lower regions. The second measured the extent of the celestial world. The Rájá delivered himself up in bonds in commutation of the third step. On account of the natural goodness of the Rájá's disposition, after depriving him of his universal sovereignty, he conceded to him the rule of the nether world.1
or
Incarnation of Ráma with the axe.
In the house of Jamadagni a Bráhman, and of his wife Reṇuká, during the Tretá Yuga, on the third day of the light half of the month of Vaiśákha, in the village of Rankaṭṭa2 near Agra, this human form was born.
Kárttavírya of the Daitya1 race, who had neither hands nor feet, was at that time on the throne. In great affliction on account of his misfortune, he abandoned the world and retired to the Kailása mountain to undergo penance. Mahádeva vouchsafing his favour, gave him a thousand arms and at his prayer bestowed on him the sovereignty of the three worlds. But he oppressed the deities for which reason they implored his destruction, and their supplication was heard. They say that Jamadagni was descended from Mahádeva and Reṇuká from Aditi mother of the deities (A´dityas). She had five sons, the fifth being Paraśuráma. He was instructed by Mahádeva in the Kailása mountain, and Jamadagni his father worshipped in the desert. Kárttavírya was one day engaged in the pastime of hunting and he happened to pass by the hermitage of Jamadagni and sought there to satisfy his hunger and thirst. The hermit brought forth food and drink, besides jewels and valuable presents befitting a monarch. The king was amazed and refused to touch them till he was informed concerning their possession. He replied that Indra, the ruler of the celestial regions, had bestowed upon him the cow Káma-dhenu which supplied him with all that he required. The king seized with avarice, demanded the cow. He answered that he could not comply with his request without the sanction of Indra, and that no earthly power could take possession of it. The king enraged determined to use force, but notwithstanding all the troops he could collect and his hostile attempts, he could not prevail. At length one night he came secretly and slew Jamadagni, but found no trace of the cow. Reṇuká sent for her son Paraśuráma, and performing the funeral ceremonies of the deceased, burnt herself according to the custom of her people and laid upon her son the injunction to avenge her. Paraśuráma, endued with miraculous power, set out to engage the king, and twenty pitched battles took place. In the last, the king was slain and the deities recovered their sovereignty. He then collected the wealth of the universe and bestowed it in alms at a sacrificial ceremony, and then abandoning the world, retired to the obscurity of a solitude.1
He is still believed to be living and his habitation is pointed out in the mountain Mahendra of the Konkan.
or
Ráma-Incarnation.
They relate that Rávaṇa one of the Rákshasas two generations in descent from Brahmá,2 had ten heads and twenty hands. He underwent austerities for a period of ten thousand years in the Kailása mountain and devoted his heads, one after another in this penance in the hope of obtaining the sovereignty of the three worlds. The Deity appeared to him and granted his prayer. The gods were afflicted by his rule and as in the former instances, solicited his dethronement which was vouchsafed, and Ráma was appointed to accomplish this end. He was accordingly born during the Tretá Yuga on the ninth of the light half of the month of Chaitra (March-April) in the city of Ayodhya, of Kausalya wife of Rájá Daśaratha. At the first dawn of intelligence, he acquired much learning and withdrawing from all worldly pursuits, set out journeying through wilds and gave a fresh beauty to his life by visiting holy shrines. He became lord of the earth and slew Rávaṇa. He ruled for eleven thousand years and introduced just laws of administration.3
or
Incarnation as Kṛishṇa.
More than four thousand years ago, Ugrasena of the Yadu race bore sway in his capital of Mathurá. His son Kansa rebelled and dethroning his father ruled with a persecuting hand, while at the same time Jarásandha, Síśupála and other princes of the Daityas exercised unbounded tyranny. The afflicted earth assuming the form of a cow, hastened with Brahmá to Vishṇu and implored their destruction. The prayer was granted and the divine commission was entrusted to Kṛishṇa. They say that the astrologers foretold to Kansa that a child would shortly be born and that his reign would be at an end. He thereupon ordered the slaughter of all infants and thus each year the blood of many innocent children was shed until his sister Devakí married Vasudeva of the Yadu race. Now Kansa heard a report that Devakí's eighth son would be the cause of his death. He therefore confined them both in prison and put to death every son that was born to them. In the beginning of the Kali Yuga, on the eighth lunar day of the dark half of the month of Bhádrapada (Aug.-Sep.), in the city of Mathurá near the metropolis of Agra, the child was born while the guards were negligent. The fetters fell off and the doors were opened and the child spoke thus. “On the other side of the Jamuna, a girl has even now been born in the house of the cowherd Nanda, and the family are asleep. Take and leave me there and bring the girl hither.” As Vasudeva set out to fulfil this injunction, the river became fordable and the command was obeyed. Kṛishṇa in his ninth year killed Kansa, released Ugrasena from prison and seated him on the throne. He also engaged the other tyrants and overthrew them.
He lived one hundred and twenty-five years and had 16,108 wives, each of whom gave birth to ten sons and one daughter, and each wife thought that she alone shared her husband's bed.
or
Buddha-Incarnation.
He was born of Máya in the house of Rájá Sudhodana of the race of Rámachandra during the Kali Yuga, on the eighth of the light half of the month of Vaisákha in the city of Makata.1
They say that as many sacrifices were performed at this period and the number of animals sacrificed was very large, Vishṇu willed to appear in human form to condemn the Vedic institutions and their sacrificial rites. For this reason he became incarnate in that year and lived to the age of a hundred. Some account of him has already preceded.
or
Kalkí-Incarnation.
At the close of the Kali Yuga, in the tenth of the light half of the month of Vaisákha, this birth will take place in the family of the Bráhman Vishṇuyasas from the womb of his wife Yaśovatí in the town of Sambhala.1
They say that a time will come when a just prince will not be left upon the earth, iniquity will abound, grain become excessively dear, and the age of men will become shortened so that they will not live beyond thirty years, and deaths will be rife. For the remedy of these disorders, the Deity will become incarnate and renew the world in righteousness.
Some add fourteen other Avatáras, making them twenty-four, and have written works on the histories of each, relating many extraordinary legends.
Many men fashion images of these Avatáras in silver and gold and worship them, but the Jainas and Buddhas do not believe in the complete incarnations (Púrṇávatáras).
These are,—wine, blood, semen, excrement, urine, excretions from the mouth, nose, ears and eyes, sweat, hair, detached nails, bones of animals whose flesh is forbidden, a woman in her courses, and one newly delivered during the period hereinafter stated, any dead animal, forbidden food, a sweeper, an ass, a dog, (tame) swine, the dust that rises from off an ass, goat, sheep or broom, and the mud shaken out of a garment, a sinner guilty of the five great sins, or whoever touches such, a crow, a (tame domestic) cock, a mouse, a eunuch, the smoke from a burnt corpse, a washerman, a hunter, a fisherman, a gamester, a spirit-seller, an executioner, a tanner, a dyer, a currier, and an oilman.1
Knowledge, austerity, suspension of breath (pránáyáma), religious exercises of the Sandhyá, sun-light, moon-light, fire, water, air, earth, ashes, mustard-seed, wild produce of the earth, shade of a tree, the back and legs of a cow, a plough, a broom, sour things,2 salt-water, mouth of a horse or goat, eating certain food, the lapse of time, milk, butter-milk, clarified butter, and the dung and urine of a cow.
Knowledge and austerity purify the soul. When the inward person is unclean by improper food, it is purified by suppression of breath and the wild produce of the earth: a drunkard by molten glass.3 When the body is defiled by ordure, wine, blood and the like, it becomes pure by cleansing below the navel with earth and water, and above it with earth and water, rinsing the teeth, washing the eyes, bathing, abstaining for a day and a night from food and drink, and afterwards eating five things from a cow.4 A pathway or water that has been polluted by the shadow of a Chanḍál (pariah) is again purified by sunlight, moonlight, and air. If the ordure of any animal falls into a well, sixty pitchers full of water must be taken out; if into a tank, a hundred pitchers; any part of a river, is purified by its own flow.1 From oil that is defiled, the contaminating matter is taken out and the oil is boiled. Milk cannot be purified except only when the shadow of a Chanḍál may have fallen upon it, in which case it becomes pure by boiling. Cotton, leaves, molasses, grain, become pure by the sprinkling of a little water after removing the defilement. Gold, silver, stone, vegetable produce, rope and whatever grows beneath the earth and utensils of cane are purified by water, and if they have been defiled by unclean oil and the like, by hot water. Clothes are purified by water. Wooden vessels if defiled by the touch of a Chanḍál cannot be made pure, but if touched by a ´Sudra or any unclean thing, may be purified by scraping; and wood and bone and horn must be treated in the same manner. Anything made of stone after being washed must be buried for seven days. A sieve, a winnowing basket, a deer-skin, and the like, and a pestle-and-mortar, are purified by being sprinkled with water. A cart may be scraped in the part defiled and the rest dashed with water. An earthen vessel is purified by being heated in the fire; and the ground by one of the following: sweeping, lighting a fire thereon, ploughing, lapse of a considerable time, being touched by the feet or back of a cow, sprinkling with water, digging or plastering with cowdung. Food smelt by a cow or into which hair, flies or lice2 have fallen, is purified with ashes and water. If any thing is defiled by excretions from the mouth, nose, eyes, ears, or sweat, or touched by hair or nails detached from one's own body, it should be first washed, and then scoured with clean earth, and again washed until the smear and smell have gone. Excretions from the mouth, nose, ears, or eyes of another, if they come from above the navel, must if possible, be purified as above described, after which he must bathe: all below the navel, and the two hands are purified by cleansing in the same way. If he be defiled with spirituous liquor, semen, blood, catamenia, (the touch of) a lying-in woman, ordure and urine, he must wash with water and scour with earth, and again wash with water if the defilement be above the navel; if it extend below, after the second washing, he must rub himself with butter from a cow and then with its milk, and afterward with its butter-milk, and next smear himself with cowdung and wash in its urine, and finally drink three handfuls of water from the river. If he touch a washerman, or a dyer, or a currier, or an executioner, or a hunter, or a fisherman, or an oilman, or tame swine, he is purified by water only. But if he touch a woman in her courses or a lying-in woman, or a sweeper, or a great sinner,1 or a corpse, or a dog, or an ass, cat, crow, domestic cock, mouse or a eunuch, or the smoke of a burning corpse, or the dust from an ass, dog, goat or sheep reach him, he must enter the water in his clothes and bathe and look at the sun and pronounce incantations to it. After touching a greasy human bone, he must bathe with his clothes on or else wash himself and drink three handfuls of water and look at the sun and put his hand upon a cow. Where the sun is not visible, he must look upon fire. If silk or wool come in contact with any thing the touch of which (in a man) would require his bathing, it is purified by air and sunshine if it be not actually defiled, otherwise it must also be washed. A woman in her courses becomes pure after the fourth day.
If it is not known whether a thing be clean or unclean, they accept the decision of some virtuous person regarding it or sprinkle it with water. The details on this subject are numerous.
A blue garment, unless it be of silk or wool, is improper for any caste except a ´Súdra, but a Bráhman's wife at night, and a Kshatriya woman as a bride or at a feast, may wear it, and a Vaiśya woman must avoid it when performing the ´Sráddha or funeral rites. The women of all three castes may not wear it when cooking or eating.
Human flesh, beef, horse-flesh, domestic cocks and hens, the parrot, the ´Sárika,2 the Mynah, the pigeon, the owl, the vulture, the chameleon, the bustard, the Sáras (Ardea antigone), the Papíha and waterfowl, frogs, snakes, weasels and animals whose toes are joined (web-footed birds): animals that abide in towns, except the goat; the ruddy goose (Anas casarca), the pond-heron (Ardea torra),3 dried fish or flesh, five kinds of fish, viz.:—(1). The Rohu, (Cyprinus Rohita). (2). The Patthar Chatá (Stone licker). (3). The Sankara (probably a skate the Raia Sankar). (4). The Rájíva. (5.) The Bárahi:4 carnivorous animals, the camel, the elephant, the rhinoceros, the monkey, the various reptiles; all that produces intoxication, camel's milk, mare's milk, and the milk of all animals that divide not the hoof;1 goat's and ewe's milk, the milk of forest animals, woman's milk, milk from a cow in the first ten days after calving, milk of a cow whose calf has died, till she calves again; garlic, leeks, carrots, the Sebesten plum (Cordia Sebestena) the produce from unclean land, or food which a man's foot has touched or the hand of a woman in her courses; anything from the house of a courtesan, or a thief, or a carpenter, or a usurer, or a blacksmith, or a polisher, or a goldsmith, or a washerman, or a weaver, or a tanner, or a currier, or a singer or dancer, or an armourer, or a dog keeper, or a seller of spirits, or a physician, or a surgeon, or a hunter, or a eunuch; food set apart or the food of one who has committed the five great sins;2 food dressed for offerings to the deities, leavings of food of one in mourning during the period of mourning, food of an unchaste woman, cheese and the like that is made of milk,3 all food dressed with oil or water and left all night; whatever becomes sour from being left long; food in which hair or insects may have fallen; food eaten without the five ceremonies which are obligatory before meals, as will be now described.
These details are already numerous and what has been said must suffice.
Each time before cooking, if it be in the house, the floor and part of the wall should be plastered with cowdung and earth, and if it be in the woods, as much ground as will hold the materials and the cooking utensils. No one but the person4 who cooks may occupy the spot, and he must first bathe and put on a loin-cloth and cover his head and thus complete his meal. If a piece of paper or dirty rag or other such thing fall on the plastered space, the food is spoilt. He must bathe again and newly plaster the ground and provide fresh materials. The cook must be either the mistress of the family or a Bráhman whose special duty this may be, or a relation, or the master of the house himself.
Before eating, the place where they sit must be plastered in the same way, and they occupy it without spreading any covering on the ground, but a stool or a wooden board, bare as aforesaid, may be used.
Next, the following five ceremonies are regarded as indispensable:— (1). Reading some portion of the Vedas. (2). Sprinkling water as a libation to departed ancestors. (3). Placing some food in front of the idol. (4). Throwing a little food on the ground in the name of the deities. (5). Giving some to the poor. First the children eat, then the relations satisfy themselves, after which the man himself partakes, but not out of the same dish with another even though it be a child. None but the cook may bring any provisions to the gathering. If by accident his hand touches any one, or he is touched by others, whatever food he holds in his hand at the time he must throw away, and bathing anew, bring fresh materials; unless the cook be a woman, for whom it will suffice to wash her hands and feet. The cook eats last of all. In drinking also, each person must have a separate vessel.
Formerly it was the custom for a Bráhman to eat at the house of a Bráhman or of a Kshátriya or of a Vaiśya, and a Kshátriya might eat at any house but that of a ´Súdra; and a Vaiśya in the same way; but in this cycle of the Kali Yuga, each must take his meal in the house of his own caste. The utensils from which they eat are generally the leaves of trees, and fashioned of gold, silver, brass, and also of bell-metal, and they avoid the use of copper, earthenware, and stone vessels. They also consider it improper to eat from a broken dish or from the leaves of the bar or banyan tree (ficus Indica), the pipal, (ficus religiosa) and the swallow-wort (Asclepeas gigantea).1 To eat twice either in the night or day is not approved.
These are of numerous kinds, but a few will be mentioned.
The first kind is when they neither eat nor drink during the day and night, and twenty-nine of these days are obligatory during the year, viz., on the eleventh day of each lunar fortnight of every month; the ´Sivarátri;2 the fourteenth of the light half of the month of Vaisákha (April–May) in which the birth of the Nara-Sinha, or Man-lion took place; the third of the light half of the same month being the anniversary of the birth of Paraśuráma; the ninth of the light half of the month of Chaitra (March– April), the nativity of Ráma; and the eighth of the dark half of the month of Bhádra-pada (Bhádon, Aug.–Sep.), the nativity of Kṛishṇa. On these occasions, some abstain from grain only, and other authorities lay down particular details.
The second kind. They eat only at night.
The third kind. They take only water, fruit and milk.
The fourth kind. They eat but once during the day and night, but may drink water at any time.
The fifth kind. They do not of their own desire eat during twenty-four hours, but if pressed to do so, they may partake of food not more than once.
The sixth kind is the Chandráyaṇa, which is in five ways:—(1). On the first day of the month, one mouthful is taken and an increase of one mouthful made daily till the fifteenth, from which date it diminishes daily by the like quantity. (2). Or on the first of the month, fifteen mouthfuls are taken and the consumption daily diminishes till the fifteenth, when it is reduced to one mouthful; after which it again increases by one mouthful daily. (3). Some say that instead of this, three mouthfuls, should be taken each half-day, and nothing else should be touched. (4). Or, again, eight mouthfuls each half-day, four in the morning and four in the evening. (5). Or two hundred and forty mouthfuls may be eaten (during the month) in any manner at will: The size of the mouthful should be that of a pea-hen's egg, and the faster should bathe regularly morning, noon, and evening.
The seventh kind. They neither eat nor drink for twelve days.
The eighth kind. Out of twelve days, they eat a little once daily for three days consecutively, and once at night only for three other days; during three other days and nights they do not eat unless some one brings them food, and for the remaining three, they fast altogether.
The ninth kind. For three days and nights they eat no more than one handful, and for three other days the same allowance only at night: for three more days and nights if any food is brought to them, they may take one handful, and for three days and nights they eat nothing.
The tenth kind. For three days and nights, they swallow only warm water: for three other such periods only hot milk, and again for three days and nights hot clarified butter, and for three days and nights they light a fire and put the mouth against an opening by which the hot air enters, which they inhale.
The eleventh kind. Out of fifteen days, for three days and nights they eat only leaves, and for three days and nights only the Indian fig; for three days and nights they are content with the seeds of the lotus; for three days and nights, leaves of the pípal; for three days and nights, the kind of grass called dábha.1
The twelfth kind. For six days out of the week they must content themselves with one of the following six consecutively, the produce of the cow:—(1). Urine. (2). Dung. (3). Milk. (4). Buttermilk. (5). Butter. (6). Water. On the seventh he must abstain from food altogether.
During every kind of fast they must abstain from meat, the pulse Adas, (Cicer lens), the bean Lobiyá, (Dolichos Sinensis), honey and molasses; they must sleep on the ground; they may not play at such games as chaupar and solah2; nor approach their wives at night, nor anoint themselves with oil, nor shave, and the like, and they must give alms daily and perform other good works.
Although these exceed expression, and a volume could not contain them, they may be classed in seven degrees.
The first degree comprises five kinds which cannot be expiated.
(1). Killing a Bráhman. (2). Incest with the mother. (3). Drinking spirituous liquors by a Bráhman, Kshátriya or Vaiśya; accounted no sin, however, in a ´Súdra. Some authorities name three kinds of spirits, viz., distilled from rice or other grain: from mahwá (Bassia Latifolia), and the like: from molasses and similar things. All three are forbidden to the Bráhman; the first-named only to the Kshátriya and the Vaiśya. (4). Stealing ten máshas of gold. (5). Associating for one year with anyone guilty of these four.
The second degree. Untruth in regard to genealogy, carrying a slander to the king, and false accusation of a Guru, are equivalent to slaying a Bráhman.
Carnal connection with sisters by the same mother,3 with immature girls, with women of the lowest class, and the wives of curriers, painters, rope-dancers, fishermen and fowlers, and the wife of one's friend or son, is equivalent to the second great sin (of the first degree).
Forgetting the Vedas, or showing them contempt, false testimony (without a bad motive), killing a relation (without malice), and eating prohibited things, are equivalent to the third sin of the first degree.
Betrayal of trust in regard to a deposit, and stealing a human creature, a horse, jewels, silver and land, are equivalent to stealing gold.
Third degree. Killing a cow, adultery with other than the above-named women, theft of other things besides (gold), killing a woman,1 a Kshatriya, a Vaiśyá or a ´Súdra (without malice), bewitching, oppression of others, exacting illegal imposts, procuring for immoral purposes, prostitution and making a livelihood thereby, deserting a teacher or father or mother, usury as has been noticed, trading in a Bráhman or Kshatriya unless through necessity, in which case they may not deal in oil, salt, sweetmeats, cooked food, sesame-seed, stone, living animals, red cloths, hempen, linen or woollen cloths, fruits, medicines, arms, poison, flesh perfumes, milk, honey, buttermilk, spirituous liquors, indigo, lac, grass water and leather goods: non-payment of the three debts,2 that is to the gods, which is sacrifice; to spiritual teachers, which is reading the Vedas; and to ancestors for the procreation of their kind: omitting investiture of the sacred thread at the proper time, deserting one's kindred, selling a son, a wife, a garden, a well, or a holy pool, digging up green produce from the ground having no need of it,3 performing the páka sacrifice with a selfish view merely, application to the books of a false religion, doing service for hire as a Bráhman,4 marrying before an elder brother: all these are considered equivalent to killing a cow.
Fourth degree. Dissimulation, sodomy, molesting a Bráhman,5 smelling any spirituous liquor, and anything extremely fœtid or unfit to be smelt.6
Fifth degree. Killing an elephant, a horse, a camel, a deer, a goat, a sheep, a buffalo, a nílgao, a fish, an ass, a dog, a cat,7 a pig and the like; receiving property from forbidden persons as a Chanḍála or pariah, and the like; trading in the things aforesaid without necessity, falsehood, and serving a ´Súdra.
Sixth degree. Killing small insects like ants; eating from the hand or vessel of a wine-seller.
Seventh degree. Stealing fruit, flowers, and firewood; want of mental firmness on important occasions.1
For each of these degrees of sin certain penances have been appointed, the performance of which releases from further penalty: for instance, they say that whoever kills a Bráhman will transmigrate into the form of a deer, a dog, a camel, or boar. When he takes human form he will be subject to diseases and end his life in great afflictions. The expiation is to cut off pieces of his own flesh and skin and throw them into the fire, or for twelve years forsake his family and taking a human skull in his hand, go a begging and from street to street and door to door proclaim his wickedness; this is, provided it was accidental,2 otherwise this penance lasts twenty-four years.
Although they hold these to be very numerous twelve are accounted heinous:—(1). Krodha, being under the influence of anger. (2). Lobha, inordinate desire of rank and wealth. (3). Dvesha, hatred towards men. (4). Rága, love of worldly pleasures. (5). Mána, esteeming one's self above others. (6). Moha, ignorance. (7). Mada, intoxication from spirituous liquors or wealth or youth or station or knowledge. (8). ´Soka, absorption in grief through loss of goods, reputation or honour, or separation from friends. (9). Mámatva,3 considering the things of the world as one's own. (10). Ahankára, egoism. (11). Bhaya, fearing other than God. (12). Harsha, joy in one's own virtue and the evil of others.
The endeavour of such as desire to know God should be first to restrain themselves from these twelve sins until they acquire virtuous dispositions and become worthy to attain to the divine union. Some say that all evil actions are reducible to ten heads,4 of which three corrupt the heart, viz., coveting the goods of another; resolving on any forbidden deed; scepticism in regard to the chosen servants of God. The same number defile the members of the body, viz., taking the goods of another by force; injury to the innocent;1 adultery.
The sins of the tongue are four, viz., scurrilous language, falsehood, slander, and useless tattle.
May the omnipotent Lord keep us from these ten sins and bring us to the goal of our desire.
Although profound and enlightened moralists are convinced that true happiness consists in the acquisition of virtue and recognise no other temple of God but a pure heart, nevertheless the physicians of the spiritual order, from their knowledge of the pulsation of human feeling, have bestowed on certain places a reputation for sanctity and thus rousing the slumberers in forgetfulness and instilling in them the enthusiastic desire of seeking God, have made these shrines instruments for their reverencing of the just, and the toils of the pilgrimage a means of facilitating the attainment of their aim.
These holy places are of four degrees.
The first is termed deva or divine and dedicated to Brahmá, Vishṇu and Mahádeva. The greatest among these are twenty-eight rivers in the following order:—
(1). Ganges. (2). Sarasvatí. (3). Jamuna. (4). Narbadá.2 (5). Vipáśá, known as the Biáh (Hyphasis). (6). Vitastá (Hydaspes or Bidaspes) known as the Bihat. (7). Kauśikí, a river near Rhoṭás3 in the Panjáb, but some place it in the neighbourhood of Garḥí in the eastern districts. (8). Nandávatí.4 (9). Chandrabhága, known as the Chenáb. (10). ´Sarayu (Sarju) known as the Saráu. (11). Satyavatí.5 (12). Tápí known as Taptí, upon the (north) bank of which is Burhánpúr.1 (13). Párávatí.2 (14). Pásávatí. (15). Gomatí (Gumti) near Dváraká.3 (16). Gandakí, upon the banks of which is Sulṭánpúr of the Súbah of Oudh. (17). Báhudá.4 (18). Deviká (Deva or Gogra). (19). Godávarí, called also Bánganga.5 Paṭṭan of the Dekhan is situated on its bank. (20). Támraparṇí6 at the extremity of the Dekhan. Here pearls are found. (21). Charmanvatí. (22). Varaṇa, near Benares. (23). Irávatí, known as the Ráví (Hydraotes). Lahor is on its bank. (24). ´Satadru (the hundred-channelled), known as the Sutlej. Ludíana is upon its bank. (25). Bhímarathí, called also the Bhímá, in the Dekhan. (26). Parnasoṇá.7 (27). Vanjara, in the Dekhan. (28). A´chamíyyá. Some include the Indus, but it is not of the same sanctity.
Each of these rivers as dedicated to one of these deities, has peculiar characteristics ascribed to it: Some of the places situated on their banks are esteemed holy, as, for example, the village of Soron on the Ganges, to which multitudes flock on the twelfth of the month of Aghan. (Nov.– Dec.). Some regard certain cities as dedicated to the divinities. Among these are Káśi, commonly called Benares. The adjacent country for five kos around the city is held sacred. Although pilgrimages take place throughout the year, on the ´Siva-rátri1 multitudes resort thither from distant parts and it is considered one of the most chosen places in which to die. Final liberation is said to be fourfold:—(1). Sálokya,2 passing from the degrees of paradise to Kailása. They say that when a man goes to heaven through good works, he must return to earth, but when after various transmigrations, he attains that region, he returns no more. (2). Sárúpya (assimilation to the deity); when a man partakes of the divine elementary form, he does not revisit the earth. (3). Sámípya (nearness to the deity) is when a man after breaking the elemental bonds, by the power of good works is admitted into the presence of God's elect, and does not return to earth. (4). Sáyujya (absorption into the deity); after passing through all intermediate stages, he obtains the bliss of true liberation. They have likewise divided the territory of Benares into four kinds. The characteristic of two parts is that when a being dies therein, he attains the fourth degree of Mukti; if he dies in one of the others, he reaches the third degree, and if in the remaining one, the second degree.
Ayodhyá, commonly called Awadh. The distance of forty kos to the east, and twenty to the north is regarded as sacred ground. On the ninth of the light half of the month of Chaitra a great religious festival is held.3
Avantiká, Ujjain. All around it for thirty-two kos is accounted holy and a large concourse takes place on the ´Siva-rátri.
Kánchi4 (Conjevaram) in the Dekhan. For twenty kos around it is considered sacred. On the eighth of every Hindu month that falls on a Tuesday, there is a great concourse of pilgrims.
Mathurá is sacred for forty-eight kos around, and even before it became the birthplace of Kṛíshṇa, was held in veneration. Religious festivals are held on the 23rd of the month of Bhádra (Bhádoṅn, Aug.–Sept.) and the 15th of Kárttika (Oct.–Nov.).1
Dváraká. The country for forty kos in length and twenty in breadth is esteemed holy. On the Diwálí2 festival, crowds resort hither.
Máyá, known as Haridvára (Hardwár) on the Ganges. It is held sacred for eighteen kos in length. Large numbers of pilgrims assemble on the 10th of Chaitra.
These seven are called the seven (sacred) cities.
Prayága now called Illahábás. The distance for twenty kos around is venerated. They say that the desires of a man that dies here are gratified in his next birth. They also hold that whoever commits suicide is guilty of a great crime except in this spot where it meets with exceeding reward. Throughout the year it is considered holy, but especially so during the month of Mágha.3 (Jan.–Feb.).
Nagarkoṭ.4 For eight kos round it is venerated. On the eighth of the months of Chaitra and Kuár, many pilgrims assemble.
Káshmír is also accounted of this class and is dedicated to Mahádeva. Many places in it are held in great veneration.
The second are the shrines of the A´suras, which are temples dedicated to the Daitya race. In many things they share the privileges of the devatás; but the latter are more pure, while the others are filled with the principle of tamas (darkness).5 Their temples are said to be in the lower regions (Pátála).
The third are called A´rsha, or shrines of the great Ṛishis, men who by virtue of austerities and good works are in near proximity to the deity. Their shrines are counted by thousands. Amongst them are Nimkhár (Nimishára),1 Pukhra (Pushkara),2 Khusháb, and Baddirí.3
The fourth are called Mánusha, or appertaining to men who by the power of good works are superior to mankind in general, though they do not obtain the rank of the third degree. Their shrines also are numerous. Among them is Kurukshetra, which for forty kos around is considered holy, and numerous pilgrims resort thither during eclipses of the sun and moon.
Ceremonies are laid down for each pilgrimage and their various meritorious results are declared.
O THOU! that seekest after divine knowledge, learn wisdom of these Hindu legends! Each particle among created atoms is a sublime temple of worship. May the Almighty deliver mankind from the wanderings of a vain imagination troubled over many things.
This is of eight kinds:—
1. Bráhmya.4 The girl's father with other elders of the family visit the bridegroom and bring him to his house where the relations assemble. Then the grandfather, or brother, or any other male relation, or the mother, says before the company:—“I have bestowed such and such a maiden upon such and such a man.” The bridegroom in the presence of the same company gives his consent. Certain incantations are then pronounced and the Homa sacrifice is performed. It is then declared that the girl's mother has borne male children and was of smaller stature than her husband,1 and that the bridegroom is not impotent, and both parties declare that they have not been subject to leprosy, phthisis, dyspepsia, hemorrhoids, piles, ehronic issue of blood, deformity of limb, or epilepsy. At the nuptials an attendant of the bride washes the feet of the bride and bridegroom and draws the sectarial marks upon them. Three vessels filled severally with rice and curds, after certain incantations have been pronounced, are then given to them to eat. When this is concluded they are dressed out and taken to a retired chamber and a curtain is hung between the bride and bridegroom. The father takes each of the young people and turns them facing the east and a Bráhman repeats certain prayers and places in the hand of each some rice and five betel-nuts. The curtain is then removed and they present to each other what they hold in their hands. The Bráhman next places the two hands of the bride in those of the bridegroom and repeats certain prayers and then reverses the ceremony; after which he binds them both with loose-spun cotton thread, and the girl's father taking her hand gives her to the bridegroom and says, ‘May there be ever participation between you and this nursling of happiness in three things—in good works, in worldly goods, and tranquillity of life. “Finally, a fire is lit and the pair are led round it seven times,2 and the marriage is completed. Until this is done, the engagement may be lawfully cancelled.
2. Daiva (of the Devas). At the time of a sacrifice, all is given away in alms and a maiden is bestowed on the Bráhman performing the sacrifice. The betrothal is then made and the other ceremonies are conducted as aforesaid.1
3. Ârsha (of the Rishis). This rite takes place when a pair of kine have been received from the bridegroom.
4. Prájápatya2 (of the Prájápatis). The man and woman are brought together and united by this bond.
5. A´sura (of the A´suras). The maiden is received in marriage after as much wealth has been presented to her kinsmen (as the suitor can afford).3
6. Gándharva (of the Gándharvas). The pair entertain a mutual affection and are voluntarily united in wedlock without the knowledge of others.
7. Rákshasa (of the Rákshasas), is the forcible seizure and abduction of a girl from her people by the ravisher to his own house and there marrying her.
8. Paisácha (of the Pisáchas). This rite receives this name when the lover secretly approaches a girl when asleep or intoxicated or disordered in mind.
Everywhere there is some difference in the preliminary betrothals, but the concluding ceremonies are after the manner above described. The four rites are lawful for a Bráhman; and besides the second, all are within his privilege. The fifth is lawful to a Vaiśya or a ´Súdra; the sixth and seventh for a Kshatriya. The eighth is held disgraceful by all.4
A dower is not mentioned in the case of Bráhmans, and divorce is not customary: In the former ages of the world, it was the rule for Bráhmans to take wives from among all the castes, while the other three castes considered it unlawful to wed a Bráhman woman. The same practice obtained between all superior and inferior castes reciprocally. In the present Kali Yuga no one chooses a wife out of his own caste, nay, each of these four being subdivided into various branches, each subdivision asks in marriage only the daughters of their own equals.
Although there are numerous classes of Bráhmans, the noblest by descent are from the (seven) Ṛishis, Kaśyapa, Atri, Bharadvája, Viśva-mitra, Gotáma, Angiras, and Pulastya.1 Each of these has numerous ramifications. When any member of one of these families attains to any worldly and spiritual eminence and becomes the founder of any class of institutes, his posterity are called by his name. The family caste of each is called Kula (Hindi kul) or gotra,2 (Hindi gotar), and the rule is that if a youth and maid be of the same gotra, however distant be the relationship, their marriage is unlawful; but if one be of a separate kula, they may lawfully marry. Kshatriyas, Vaiśyas and ´Súdras are dependent for their marriage ceremony on a family priest (purohita), and each class has a special Bráhman from one of the seven lines of descent. If the maid and the youth have their several family priests belonging to the same kula, their marriage is held unlawful. When united in marriage, the wife leaves her own gotra and enters that of her husband.
When the betrothal is first proposed the lines of paternal and maternal ancestry of both the woman and the man are scrutinised. In computing either of the two genealogies, if within each fifth degree of ascent the lines unite, the marriage is not lawful. Also if in the two paternal genealogies, they unite in any generation, the marriage cannot take place. Scrutiny of the maternal descent on both sides is not necessary. If in the paternal genealogies of both parties, consanguinity through a female occurs in the eighth generation, it is held lawful, but if in the paternal lines of both, consanguinity through a female occurs in the sixth generation it constitutes a fresh (impediment of) kinship. The same result occurs if the consanguinity occurs in the sixth generation by the mother's side.
Until the elder brother is married, the younger may not lawfully be so.
It is held expedient that the bride should not be under eight,1 and any age over ten is thought improper. The man should be twenty-five, and marriage after fifty years of age, they regard as unbecoming. Excepting in the king, it is not considered right for a man to have more than one wife, unless his first wife is sickly or proves barren, or her children die. In these cases, he may marry ten wives, but if the tenth proves defective, he may not marry again. If his first wife is suitable, and he desires to take another, he must give the first a third part of his estate.
It was the custom in ancient times for the daughters of kings when they sought a husband, to hold a great festival. Her suitors were assembled together and the damsel attended the banquet in person. Of whomever she made choice, she placed upon his neck a string of pearls and flowers. This custom was called Svayamvara, or self-choice.2
Quando mulier mensium suorum expers sit quod post quatriduum contingit, si maritus ejus intra duodecim dies proximos in quibus satis probabile est conceptus, ineat eam, necesse est illi perlutum esse. In reliquis temporibus dissimilis est ratio et manus pedesque lavare satis esse censeant. Per totum tempus mensium coitum in crimine ponunt. In diebus his, vivit mulier in secessu, neque cibum mariti nec vestimenta tangit neque ad culinam accedit ne contaminet eam.
A man is adorned by twelve things:—(1). Trimming his beard. (2). Ablution of his body. (3). Drawing the sectarial marks of caste. (4). Anointing with perfumes and oil. (5). Wearing gold earrings. (6). Wearing the jáma4 fastened on the left side. (7). Bearing the mukuṭa which is a golden tiara worn on the turban. (8). Wearing a sword. (9). Carrying a dagger and the like, at the waist. (10). Wearing a ring on the finger. (11). Eating betel. (12). Wearing sandals or shoes.
A woman is adorned by sixteen things:—(1). Bathing. (2). Anointing with oil. (3). Braiding the hair. (4). Decking the crown of her head with jewels (5). Anointing with sandal-wood unguent. (6). The wearing of dresses and these are of various kinds. The sleeves of some reach to the fingers, of others to the elbows. A jacket without a skirt called angiyá (Sansk. angiká) was chiefly worn, and instead of drawers, a lahangá which is a waist-cloth joined at both ends with a band sewn at the top through which the cord passes for fastening. It is also made in other forms. Others wear the ḍanḍiyá which is a large sheet worn over the lahangá, part of which is drawn over the head and the other end fastened at the waist. These three garments are of necessity. The wealthy wear other garments over this. Some wear the veil1 and páe-jámas. (7). Sectarial marks of caste, and often decked with pearls and golden ornaments. (8). Tinting with lampblack like collyrium. (9). Wearing earrings. (10). Adorning with nose-rings of pearls and gold. (11). Wearing ornaments round the neck. (12). Decking with garlands of flowers or pearls. (13). Staining the hands. (14). Wearing a belt hung with small bells. (15). Decorating the feet with gold ornaments. (16). Eating pán. Finally blandishments and artfulness.
These are of many kinds:2 —(1). The Sís-phúl, an ornament for the head resembling the marigold. (2). Máṅng, worn on the parting of the hair to add to its beauty. (3). Koṭbiládar, worn on the forehead consisting of five bands and a long centre-drop. (4). Sekrá, seven or more strings of pearls linked to studs and hung from the forehead in such a manner as to conceal the face. It is chiefly worn at marriages and births. (5). Bindulí, smaller than a (gold) muhur and worn on the forehead. (6). Khunṭilá, a earring tapering in shape. (7). Karnphúl (ear-flower), shaped like the flower of the Magrela,3 a decoration for the ear. (8). Ḍurbachh, a earring. (9). Pípal-pattí, (Pipal-leaf) crescent-shaped, eight or nine being worn in each ear. (10). Bálí, a circlet with a pearl worn in the ear. (11). Champakalí, smaller than the red rose,1 and worn on the shell of the ear. (12). Mor-Bhaṅnwar, shaped like a peacock, a ear-pendant. (13). Bésar is a broad piece of gold to the upper ends of which a pearl is attached and at the other a golden wire which is clasped on to the pearl and hung from the nose by gold wire.2 (14). Phúlí is like a bud, the stalk of which is attached to the nose. (15). Laung, an ornament for the nose in the shape of a clove. (16). Nath3 is a golden circlet with a ruby between two pearls, or other jewels. It is worn in the nostril. (17). Guluband consists of five or seven rose-shaped buttons of gold strung on to silk and worn round the neck. (18). Hár is a necklace of strings of pearls inter-connected by golden roses. (19). Háṅns is a necklace. (20). Kangan is a bracelet. (21). Gajrah, a bracelet made of gold and pearls. (22). Jawe, consisting of five golden barley-corns (jau) strung on silk and fastened on each wrist. (23). Chúṛ,4 (a bracelet) worn above the wrist. (24). Báhú is like the chúr but a little smaller. (25). Chúṛíṅn, a little thinner than the (ordinary) bracelet. Some seven are worn together. (26). Bázúband, (armlet); of these there are various kinds. (27). Ṭáḍ, a hollow circle worn on the arm. (28). Angúṭhí, finger ring. Various forms are made. (29). Chhudr-Khanṭiká, golden bells strung on gold wire and twisted round the waist. (30). Kaṭi-mekhlá, a golden belt, highly decorative. (31). Jehar, three gold rings, as ankle-ornaments. The first is called Chúrá, consisting of two hollow half-circlets which when joined together form a complete ring. The second is called ḍúṅnḍhaní, and resembles the former only engraved somewhat. The third is called masúchí and is like the second but differently engraved. (32). Páil, the anklet, called Khalkhál (in Arabic). (34). Ghúṅnghrú, small golden bells, six on each ankle strung upon silk and worn between the Jehar and Khalkhál. (35). Bháṅnk, an ornament for the instep, triangular and square. (36). Bichhwah, an ornament for the instep shaped like half a bell. (37). Anwaṭ, an ornament for the great toe.
All these ornaments are made either plain or studded with jewels, and are of many styles. What words can express the exquisite workmanship of the trade? Their delicacy and skill is such that the cost of the work is ten tolahs for each tolah of gold. Her Majesty has suggested new patterns in each kind. A few of these have been represented in plates for illustration.
In other countries the jewels are secured in the sockets made for them, with lac, but in Hinḍustan, it is effected with kundan which is gold made so pure and ductile that the fable of the gold of Parvíz which he could mould with his hand becomes credible.1
The mode of preparation is as follows:—Of a másha of gold they draw out a wire eight fingers long and one finger in breadth. Then the wire is coated with a mixture of two parts of the ashes of dried field-cowdung2 and one part of Sámbhar3 salt, after which it is wrapped in a coarse cloth and covered with clay. This is generally of not more than ten tolahs weight, and it is placed in a fire of four sers of cowdung which is then suffered to cool down. If there is but little alloy in it, it will become of standard fineness after three fires, otherwise it must be coated with the same mixture and passed through three more fires. It is generally found that three coatings and three fires are sufficient for the purpose. It must then be washed and placed in an earthen vessel filled with limejuice or some other (acid) which is heated to boiling. It is then cleaned and wound round a cane and taken off (when required), and re-heated from time to time, and used for setting by means of an iron style and so adheres that it will not become detached for a long period of time. At first the ornament is fashioned quite plain and here and there they leave sockets for the setting of the jewels. These sockets are filled with lac and a little of the gold is inserted above it, and on this the jewel is pressed down. The overflow of the lac is scraped off and it is then weighed. They next cover the lac with the kundan by means of a needle, and finally scrape and polish it with a steel-pointed tool.
The fee of a skilled artificer for this work is sixty-four dáms on each tolah.
The Zarnishán or gold inlayer, is a workman who cuts silver, agate, crystal and other gems in various ways and sets them on gold. He inlays silver and steel with lines of gold and embellishes agates and other stones by engraving and cutting them. On steel and gems, if he uses one tolah of gold, he receives one and a half as his charge; if he inlays on ivory, fish-bone, tortoise-shell, rhinoceros-horn or silver, his charge for every tolah of gold is one tolah of the same.
The Koftgar or gold-beater, inlays on steel and other metals markings more delicate than the teeth of a file, and damascenes with gold and silver wire. He receives one hundred dáms for each tolah of gold and sixty for a tolah of silver. His work is principally on weapons.
The Mínákár or enameller, works on cups, flagons, rings and other articles with gold and silver. He polishes his delicate enamels separately on various colours, sets them in their suitable places and puts them to the fire. This is done several times. His charge is sixteen dáms for each tolah of gold, and seven for a tolah of silver.
The Sádah-kár, a plain goldsmith, fashions gold-work and other articles of gold and silver. His charge is five and a half dáms on every tolah of gold and two for every tolah of silver.
The Shabakah-kár1 executes pierced-work in ornaments and vessels. His charge is double that of the Sádah-kár.
The Munabbat-kár works plain figures or impressions on a gold ground, so that they appear in relief. His charge is ten dáms for a tolah of gold and four for a tolah of silver.
The Charm-kár2 incrusts granulations of gold and silver like poppy-seeds on ornaments and vessels. For every tolah weight of golden grains his charge is one rupee, and half of this for silver.
The Sím-báf or plaiter of silver, draws out gold and silver wire and plaits them into belts for swords, daggers and the like. He receives twenty-four dáms on a tolah of gold and sixteen for a tolah of silver.
The Sawád-kár grinds a black composition (sawád) and lays it smoothly over traceries of gold and then polishes the ground evenly with a file. The sawád consists of gold, silver, copper, lead and sulphur mixed together in certain proportions. The work is of several kinds. The finest is on gold and the charge is two rupees per tolah of sawád. For the middling kind, the charge is one rupee, and for the lowest, eight annas.
The Zar-kob or gold beater, makes gold and silver leaf.
Lapidaries, metal casters, and other artificers produce designs which excite astonishment, but this exposition is already sufficiently protracted. Artists of all kinds are constantly employed at the Imperial Court where their work is subjected to the test of criticism.
As soon as a child is born, the father bathes himself in cold water, worships the deities and performs the ´Sráddha ceremonies, and stirring some honey and ghee together with a gold ring, puts it into the infant's mouth. The midwife then cuts the umbilical cord, and immediately upon its severance the whole family become unclean. In this state they refrain from the Homa sacrifice and the worship of the deities and from repeating the gáyatrí and many other ceremonies, contenting themselves with interior remembrance of the Deity. If this takes place in a Bráhman's family, his children and relations to the fourth degree of consanguinity are ceremonially unclean for ten days; the relations of the fifth degree, for six days; those of the sixth degree, for four days; of the seventh, for three; of the eighth for one day and night, and those of the ninth continue so for four pahrs.
At the close of these periods they are freed after ablution of the body. But the usual rule is that a Bráhman together with his kindred to the seventh degree, are unclean for ten days; a Kshatriya, for twelve days; a Vaiśya and the superior1 class of ´Súdra for fifteen days, and the inferior ´Súdras for thirty days. During this time strangers avoid associating or eating with them. This state is called Sútaka (impurity from childbirth). A prince and his attendants, his physician, cook, overseer, and other servants of the crown are not subjected to this condition, but on the sixth day certain prayers are offered to the Deity and rejoicings are made, and the mother and child are bathed.
The day after the expiration of the Sútaka, they name the child and look in the astronomical table for the sign and station of the rising of the moon. The initial of his name is taken from the letter which is therewith connected1 and a name of more than four letters is considered blameworthy. In the fourth month they bring it into the sun before which time it is never carried out of the house. In the fifth month they bore the lobe of the right ear. In the sixth month, if the child be a boy, they place various kinds of food around him, and feed him with that for which he shows a preference. If it be a girl, this is not done till the sixth or seventh month. When it is a year old, or in the third year, they shave his head, but by some this is delayed till the fifth year, by others till the seventh, and by others again till the eighth year, when a festival is held. In the fifth year they send him to school and meet together in rejoicing.
They observe the birthday and annually celebrate it with a feast, and at the close of each year make a knot on a thread of silk. He is invested with the sacred string at the appointed time. At each of these occasions they perform certain works and go through some extraordinary ceremonies.
Certain auspicious days are religiously observed and celebrated as festivals. These are called te'ohár and a few of them are here indicated.
During the month of Chaitra (March–April, Hind. Chait) eight occur:— (1). Sṛishṭyádi,1 the first lunar day of the light half of the month. (2). Nava-rátra (Hind. Nau-rátr); the nine first nights of the year are chiefly employed in ceremonial worship and prayer and pilgrims from afar assemble at Nagarkoṭ (Kángra) and other places dedicated to the worship of Durga. (3). ´Sri-pañchamí, the fifth lunar day (of the light half of the month).2 (4). Aśokáshtamí,3 the eighth of the light half of the month. (5). Ráma-navamí, ninth day of the light half of the month, the birthday of Ráma. (6). Chaturdaśa (Hind. Chaudas) the fourteenth. (7). Púrṇa-mása (Hind. Púrṇmásí), the fifteenth. (8). Parivá (Sansk. Pratipada) the sixteenth calculating from the ´Sukla-paksha or light fortnight, or counting from Kṛishṇa-paksha (dark fortnight), the 1st, and according to the computation by which the beginning of the month is taken from Kṛishṇa-pakshá, this day will fall in the beginning of the second month which is Vaiśákha. Therefore with those who hold this view, the festival will occur on the 1st of Kṛishṇa-paksha which preceded the aforesaid Sukla-paksha,4 and so with all the festivals that fall in Kṛishṇa-paksha, the difference of a month one way or the other arises between the two methods of calculation.
During Vaiśákha (April–May) there are four:—(1). Tíj (Sansk. Tṛitíya), the third lunar day of the light fortnight, the birthday of Paraśuráma.5 (2). Saptamí, the seventh. (3). Chaturdaśí, the fourteenth, the birthday of Nara-Sinha. (4). Amávasa, the thirtieth.
During the month of Jyeshṭha (Hind. Jeṭh, May–June), there are three:—(1). Chaturthí, the fourth lunar day. (2). Navamí, the ninth. (3). Daśamí, the tenth which is called Daśa-hara.6
In the month of A´sháḍha (Hind. Asáṛh, June–July), the seventh, eighth and eleventh, and according to some the fifteenth.1
In the month of ´Srávaṇa (Hind. Sáwan, July–Aug.) three:—(1). Púrṇamása, the fifteenth of the light half of the month. This is the greatest festival with the Bráhmans throughout the year upon which they fasten the amulet called raksha-bandhana on the right wrists of the principal people. It is a cord of silk and the like, decorated by some with jewels and pearls. (2). (Nága-pañchami)2 the fifth of the light fortnight.
In the month of Bhádra-pada (Hind. Bhádoṅn, Aug.–Sept.) there are five; the fourth, fifth, sixth, twelfth, and twenty-third. The latter is the birthday of Kṛishṇa. Some hold this to be on the eighth of (the dark half of) Srávaṇa.3
In the month of A´śvin there are two. As aforesaid (in the month of Chaitra) nine nights are accounted holy and the tenth (of the light fortnight) is called Daśa-hara. According to their writings the festival previously mentioned is called Daśa-hara and this is known as the Vijay-daśamí. On this day they pay particular attention to their horses and decorate them and place green sprouts of barley on their heads, and all workmen venerate their tools, and it is held as a great festival and particularly for the Kshatriyas. (Another) they call ´Sráddha-Kanya-gata1 on the fifteenth of Kṛishṇa-paksha of the month of A´śvin by common consent, but those who compute the beginning of the month from its Kṛishṇa-paksha place it in the month preceding. During these fifteen days (of the dark fortnight) they give alms in the name of their deceased ancestors, either in money or kind, as has been related.
In the month of Kárrtika (Oct.–Nov.) there are six. The 1st or parivá. This is called Balirájya or the principality of Bali.2 On this day they deck themselves and their cattle and buffaloes.
The second,3 ninth, eleventh and twelfth are also festivals. The thirtieth is the Dípálí or row of lamps (Hind. Diwálí). A difference occurs in the calculation of its date. According to the ´Sukla-paksha computation, it is as above stated, but by the Kṛishṇa-paksha this is called the 15th of Márgaśírsha (Hind. Aghan, Nov.–Dec.) and they therefore hold this festival on the 15th of the Kṛishṇa-paksha of Kárttika. Lamps are lit as on the (Muhammedan) festival of Shab-í-barát. It begins on the 29th, and this night is considered auspicious for dicing and many strange traditions are told regarding it. It is the greatest of the festivals for the Vaiśya caste.4
In the month of Márgaśírsha, there are three, viz., the seventh of ´Sukla-paksha and the eighth and ninth of Kṛishṇa-paksha. In both these last a difference of computation as above occurs.
In the month of Pausha (Hind. Pús., Dec.–Jan.) the eighth of ´Sukla-paksha is held sacred.
In the month of Mágha (Jan.–Feb.) there are four, viz., the third, fourth, fifth and seventh. On the fifth a great festival is held called Vasanta in which they throw different coloured powders upon each other, and sing songs.
This is the beginning of the spring among the Hindus. Although this is much regarded among the people, yet in old works the seventh was considered the greater festival.1
In the month of Phálguṇa (Feb.–March) there are two. The fifteenth of ´Sukla-paksha is called the Holí2 and extends from the 13th to the 17th. They light fires and throw various articles into them and fling coloured powder upon each other and indulge in much merriment. It is a great festival among the ´Súdras. The night and day of the 29th are held sacred: the night is called ´Siva-rátri. Some make this occur on the 14th of Kṛishṇa-paksha and by this computation the ´Siva-rátri falls on the 14th of the dark fortnight of Phálguṇa,3 a month earlier. They keep the night in vigil, narrating wonderful legends. The Bráhmans also consider five days in each month sacred, the 8th, 14th, 15th and 30th, and Sankránti which is the day on which the sun passes from one Zodiacal sign into another.
Regarding the celebration of the various festivals marvellous legends are told, and they are the subject of entertaining narratives.
Yantra (Hindi Jantra) signifies an instrument of any kind. I do not anywhere find mention of a particular musical instrument under this name.
↩A coloured drawing of this instrument, as well as of the Víṇá and most of those mentioned in the text, will be found in Capt. Day's superb volume. The plates, besides their utility as illustrations, are artistically beautiful and a description of the instrument accompanies each. The kinnar is called in Sansk. Kinnari víṇá, varieties of which are detailed in the S. Ratnakára.
↩This name, if not the instrument, is of Arabian origin. Specimens of the Rabáb, as well as of the ḳánún, the lute and other instruments are given in Lane's “Modern Egyptians,” Chap. XVIII.
↩Capt. Day writes the name Svara-Mándala, and calls it the Kánún or Indian Dulcimer, the strings of brass and steel, and occasionally gut, and played with two plectra worn on the finger-tips.
↩This is a kind of Persian lute. A specimen of the Sárangi, or fiddle, will be found in Day.
↩Var. Adhauti, or Adhoti.
↩In the Dictionaries Kingrí.
↩One of Capt. Day's plates represents this drum under the name of the Mṛidang by which it is best known in Southern India. The two heads are tuned to the tonic, and fourth or fifth. The centre of the smaller head is coated with a composition of resin, oil, and wax and an embroidered cloth is commonly stretched over the upper side of the shell as an ornament. It is beaten by the hands, finger-tips and wrists, and is well enough known throughout India.
↩This is the Persian equivalent of the ordinary Ḍhöl of Hindustan.
↩Capt. Day describes it as an octagon frame of wood, about 6 inches deep and 3 feet in diameter, covered on one side with skin and strained by means of a network of thin leather thongs. It is struck with the fingers of the right hand, and a thin switch held perpendicularly over it by the fingers of the left is made to strike the instrument at intervals, according to the time. It has no cymbals.
↩It is a wooden hoop 8 or 9 inches in diameter and 3 or 4 inches deep, bored out of the solid. In the hoop are three or four slits containing pieces of metal strung together which clash as the tambourine is shaken.
↩ They are both Persian words, the
Shahná, or Shahnái, being literally the
king-pipe, a kind of clarion or oboe.
The word Surna
The smaller of the two pipes is used to inflate the bag which is made of the skin of a kid. It is used merely as a drone; the holes in the pipe are wholly or partially stopped with wax to tune the instrument to pitch. The drone is of cane, mounted in a stock of the same material which contains the reed. The whole reed is in one piece. Black wax is used to make the instrument wind-tight. It is also called śruti-upanga. Day's “Music of Southern India.” Plate XVI.
↩ The intensive adjectival form from
ḳaul (
The words used are
So the text, but in the Dictionaries, Bhavaiyá, a dancer or story-teller.
↩ The term is synonymous with
I am not sure of this interpretation
of
Abul Fazl's authority seems to be the “Ordinances of Manu” of which the 8th chapter deals with Civil and Criminal law. The 3rd verse runs thus—“Day by day (he should judge) separately (cases) under the 18 titles by reasons (drawn) from local usage and the treatises.” Burnell, Ed. Hopkins. The latter observes that these titles are not part of the original system of law; it appears only in the smṛitis, and its later development is easily traced. The eighteen titles are somewhat differently worded in Manu, and I give them for comparison. Non-payment of debt; pledges; sale without ownership; partnership and non-delivery of what has been given; non-payment of wages; breach of contract; revocation of sale (and) purchase; disputes between master and servant; disputes about boundaries; assault (and) slander; theft; violence; adultery; the law between man and woman; partition; dicing; games with animals.” By the latter is signified betting on them in fights, and under adultery is probably included illicit intercourse in general. I do not observe any rule regarding the position of the tribunal.
↩The word is oath, a translation of the Sanskrit śapatha, which means also ordeal. It is an asseveration by imprecating curses on the head of the taker of the oath. In this case, ordeal is evidently the true signification.
↩Produced in the rains, and so called because it ripens in 60 days from the time of sowing.
↩I am indebted to Dr. King for this name.
↩That is the sum of interest plus principal must not exceed twice the original debt. According to Manu, five times the principal is payable on corn, fruit, wool and draught animals.
↩It is worth while noticing that the Sanskrit for this term karaṇam is translated by Hopkins ‘proof,’ while stating in a note that the meaning ‘document’ given by commentators is not necessary and seems improbable. Yet this is exactly the translation of Abul Fazl, the word ‘Sanad’ employed by him signifying document or instrument.
↩Or “if he appear a thief.” The elliptical language of the text can be understood only by comparison with the text of Manu: verses 197–198 run as follows:—(197.) “If a man not being himself the owner, sells the property of another without the owner's permission, one should not allow him to be a witness, (since he is) a thief (although) he may not think he is a thief.
(198.) He should be held to a fine of 600 paṇas if he is a near relation: if he is not a near relation and has no excuse, he would incur the fine of a thief.”
↩According to Manu, (VIII. 222-23) he may return them within ten days, after which he cannot return them without being heavily fined.
↩ “Round about every village there
should be a strip of land one hundred
bows or even three casts of a staff in
width: around a city, it should be three
times as wide.” Manu. VIII, 237. This
land is intended for a common and not
to be tilled. The staff is picked up
after the first cast, and again as it falls,
and so on three times. The strength of
the cast might fitly be that of Polypœtes.
Il. XXIII, 845.
↩According to Manu, a cow with a calf not ten daysold, bulls and also the cattle of the gods (i.e., ordained for sacrifice) whether with or without a keeper, ought not to be punished. (The beast doing the damage is always represented as paying penalty.) The keeper is not liable to fine if his cattle injure a grain-crop not enclosed, but in ALL cases the value of the crop destroyed must be paid to the owner of the field. Manu. VIII. 241. The punctuation in the text is misleading.
↩“If a dispute has arisen between two villages in regard to a boundary, the king should determine the boundary in the month of Jyaistha (middle of May to middle of June) as the boundary marks are then very plain.” VIII. 245.
↩The trees recommended are the ficus Indica, and religiosa; butea frondosa, bombax heptaphyllum, and valica robusta, palms and milky trees, as being conspicuous, or very enduring. Thickets of bamboo, prosopis spicigera and trapa bispinosa, are also recommended. VIII. 247.
↩ So I translate
Corporal punishment is the punishment of this offence in ‘Manu,’ and all the other fines are heavier.
↩Different sorts of antelopes and deer, flamingoes and parrots, are “propitious” forest animals, and a fine imposed for killing them: also the small animals, such as crows, cats, &c.
↩Mann gives five times the value of damage done to leather, wooden, or earthen-ware, and to flowers, roots and fruit.
↩ Hopkins translates ‘wandering women
’ (Manu, VIII. 363), and supposes
them to be possibly Buddhistic nuns.
Sir W. Jones interprets ‘female anchorets
of an heretical religion.’ Abul
Fazl's rendering is
The
‘Let him banish the offender from his realm with all his property secure and his body unhurt.’ Sir W. Jones, VIII. 380.
↩Under the protection of her husband or other relative.
↩One commentator's opinion is, that, after the eight years she must follow him. Another states that she may marry another husband. The former opinion, says Hopkins, rests on a later view of second marriages.
↩Her ornaments and household furniture, her jewellery, her bed, and even her servants. Hopkins, M. IX. 78 n.
↩ The duties of a Bráhman's wife are
to give food to beggar guests, and attend
to her part of the sacrificial preparations.
She bathes and adorns her husband,
cleans his teeth and anoints him;
and since she holds the highest rank she
gives him his food, drink, wreaths, clothes
and ornaments. The text has
This order of inheritance is given by the commentary of Kullúka,—v. Hopkins. IX. 187 n.
↩In Manu, gambling, whether by dice or with lifeless things (dyuta), or by matches between rams and cocks and other animals (samáhvaya), is absolutely forbidden; play must be suppressed and gamesters banished or corporally punished by amputation of hand or foot. Abul Fazl's conditions must apply to a later period when gambling was made financially profitable and royal gambling-houses were established and play without royal authority penalised by fine. v. Ibid. note 5. 225. IX.
↩
The Gáyatrí verse is taken from the Ṛig Veda III. 62, and is repeated by every Bráhman at his morning and evening devotions. From being addressed to the sun (Savita) as generator, it is also called Sávitrí. The verse runs:—
“Of the god-like sun this surpassing radiance we contemplate which excites to action our intelligence.” This celebrated stanza is perhaps alluded to in Tennyson's beautiful hymn to the sun in “Akbar's Dream.”
“Once again thou flamest upwards, once again we see thee rise,
Every morning is thy birth-day gladdening human hearts and eyes.
Every morning here we greet it, bowing lowly down before thee;
Thou the god-like, thou the changeless in thy ever changing skies.
Shadow-maker, shadow-slayer, arrowing light from clime to clime,
Hear thy myriad laureates hail thee monarch in their wood-land rhyme.
Warble bird and open flower, and men below the dome of azure
Kneel adoring thee, the Timeless, in the flame that measures Time.”
Cf. R. V. I. 50, the hymn to the sun-god (Súrya) which more fully recalls these sonorous lines.
↩This is a cloth worn round the loins and passed between the legs and tucked in behind. It differs from the langoṭi in reaching to the knees.
↩The words are—
“Whatever evil I may have consciously or unconsciously committed, I make this libation to Yakshma, that the fault may be forgiven.”—Brahmaṇa sarvasva.
↩p. 185.
↩Both are incarnations of Vishṇu: Ráma being the seventh, the hero of the Rámáyaṇa; and Kṛishna, the eighth, the hero of the Mahábhárata.
↩These rites are performed at morning, mid-day, and evening.
↩This is a Vedic oblation to Agni, chiefly of milk, oil and sour gruel; there are two kinds, nitya, or of constant obligation, and kámyá, or optional.
↩This is the true interpretation of the sentence, as I learn from a Bráhman pundit. Abul Fazl's language is terse to obscurity without a knowledge of the subjects he treats of. The Agni-hotra ceremony cannot be performed till after marriage, and the presence of the wife is a necessary part of it.
↩The term Sannyásin was applied many centuries before his Majesty was born.
↩The duties of these periods may be read in Wilson's Vishṇu Puráṇa Chapters IX to XII, and in Manu.
↩A twig of each of the following sacred trees: Ficus religiosa, Ficus indica, Ficus glomerata, Mimosa albida and the Mangifera Indica are placed in the pitcher of water as an oblation.
↩In Hindi. Jagna, and Jág. Cf. Müller, Hist. Sansk. Lit. p. 203, and ff. In Páka-yajna the former word is not to be taken in the sense of cooking but signifies small or good.
↩After the return of the king, if successful, with the vanquished princes in his train, the horse was sometimes immolated, after the festival of rejoicing. Failure in conquest was followed by contempt and ridicule of overweening pretension. The antiquity of this sacrifice goes back to Vedic times. Albírúni briefly describes it in Chap. LXV.
↩See p. 11 of this Vol.
↩Of Indra's paradise, granting all desires.
↩Dhenu is a milch cow, or a cow that has calved. Káma-dhenu is the cow of plenty, belonging to the sage Vaisishṭha, yielding all that is desired. For Hiraṇya-garbha. See p. 163.
↩Mahá-bhuta signifies a ‘huge creature ’ and ‘ghaṭa’ is the frontal sinus of an elephant. Gaṇeśa was the son of ´Siva and Párvatí and is invoked at the beginning of undertakings as removing obstacles. He is represented as a short pot-bellied man frequently mounted on a rat or attended by one, and to denote his sagacity, has the head of an elephant, with, however, but one tusk.—Monier Williams.
↩The Coromandel Coast from Madras southward where the Tamil language is spoken. The Kṛitamála occurs in the Vishṇu Puráṇa; but the Kúrma reads Ritumála: according to Wilson neither name is verified.
↩The story is told in the Mahábhárata with reference to the Matsya Puráṇa as its authority which would imply that the poem is later than the Puráṇa, but according to Wilson, the great epic is much older than any extant Puráṇa, and the simplicity of the story in the Mahábhárata is of much more antique complexion than the extravagance of the actual Matsya Puráṇa. In the former, Manu collects the seeds of existing things in the ark, explained in the latter as effected by the power of Yoga. In the latter, the great serpents come to serve as cords to fasten the ark to the horn of the fish; in the former, a cable of ropes is used. As the ark is borne on the waters, Manu enters into converse with the fish, and its replies which concern the creation, regal dynasties and the duties of the different orders, form the subject of the Puráṇa.—Wilson, V. P.
↩The coral tree, Erythrina Indica, one of the five trees of Paradise.
↩Commonly Kalpa-taru, the latter being synonymous with vṛiksha, a tree.
↩According to Monier Williams, he held a cup of Amṛita in his hands. Dhanvantari is also the name of the author of the Ayur-Veda.
↩A nymph of Indra's paradise, sometimes regarded as a form of Lakshmí, and popularly accepted as a type of female beauty. The order and number of these ocean treasures varies in different accounts. See the Vishṇu Puráṇa on the churning of the ocean. I. IX.
↩See p. 33. According to Manu (II. 17) it is a district between the Sarasvatí and Dṛiśadvatí rivers.
↩Or Naimisha from S. nimisha, a twinkling; the name of a forest and shrine, celebrated as the residence of certain Ṛishis to whom Sauti related the Mahábhárata. The district was so-called because the sage Gaura-mukha destroyed an army of Asuras in a twinkling. Monier Williams, who refers to the Mahábh. Adi., p. 7275, Vana., p. 6079. It is called Nímkhár in the I. G., a town in the Sítapúr Dist., Oudh, on the left bank of the Gúmtí, 20 miles from Sítapúr town. Lat. 27° 20' 55" N. and long. 80° 31' 40". It is described as a place of great sanctity with numerous tanks and temples. In one of the tanks, Ráma is said to have washed away his sin of slaying a Bráhman in the person of Rávana, the ravisher of Sítá.
↩Fawn-eyed, an epithet also of ´Siva; in the Vishṇu Puráṇa the two sons of Diti, are Hiraṇyakaśipu (clothed in gold) and Hiraṇyáksha (golden-eyed).
↩In the Etah district, N. W. P. It is a town of great antiquity according to the I. G. and was originally known as Ukala-Kshetra, but after the destruction of Hiraṇyáksha, the name was changed to Sukara-Kshetra (beneficent-region). Devout Hindus after visiting Mathurá, go on to Soron to bathe in the Burhgangá which is here lined with handsome temples and gháts. The I. G. incorrectly gives the Daitya's name as Hiraṇyakasyapa, and Ukala is perhaps for Utkala or Utkara.
↩In the Jaipur State, situated in 26° 44' N., and long. 77° 5' E, on the old route from Agra to Mhow, 71 miles S. W. of the former, once an extensive city and now much decayed. The Mahabhír fair held annually, is attended by as many as 100,000 pilgrims. I. G.
↩Four chapters of the Vishṇu Puráṇa, from the 17th to the 21st, are taken up with the history of the legend, but the death of Hiraṇyakaśipu is mentioned without the immediate circumstances which gave occasion to it. Wilson regards this as another instance of a brief reference to popular legends frequent in that Puráṇa. It is referred to, he observes, in several other Puráṇas, but he had himself met with the story in detail only in the Bhágavata.
↩The variant in the note more approximates to the true name than that chosen in the text. Maríchi was one of the Prajápatis and the father of Kaśyapa. One of the most sacred spots on the Narbadá to this day is a site near Broach city where Bali performed the horse-sacrifice. According to the I. G., on the doubtful authority of the Rewá Puráṇa (Rewá being another name for the Narbadá), the sanctity of the Ganges will cease in the Samvat year 1951 (1895), while that of the Narbadá will perpetually endure.
↩This is briefly alluded to in the 1st Chap of the V. P., but fuller details are found, according to Wilson, in the Bhágavata and in the Kúrma, Matsya and Vámana Puráṇas. Bharadwája was one of the seven Ṛishis.
↩This is probably a corruption of araṅnyaka, a forest, wherein his hermitage was built to which he took his bride, the daughter of Rájá Prasenájit.
↩This is an error, probably of a copyist. He was sovereign of the Haihaya tribe descendants of Yadu from the twelfth prince of the lunar line. Of this tribe there were five great divisions, the Tálojanghas, Vitihotras, A´vantyas, Tundikeras and Játas. They dwelt in Central India. The capital of the first named was Máhíshmatí or Chulí Maheswar, still called, according to Col. Todd Sahasra-báhu ki basti, ‘village of the thousand armed,’ i. e., of Kárttavírya. (Rajásthán, I. 39, n.). These tribes must have preceded the Rájpút tribes by whom their country, Málwa, Ujjain and the valley of the Narbadá, is now occupied. A remnant of the Haihaya still exists at the top of the valley of Sohágpúr in Bhagel-khaṇḍ, aware of their ancient lineage and celebrated for their valour. Their predatory connection with the Sakas, suggests their Scythian origin, which the word Haya, meaning in Sansk. a horse, is supposed to confirm, perhaps from their nomadic habits implied in the Homeric name, Hippemolgi. Wilson hints their connection with the Huns. See his notes to Book IV, Chapters III and XI, V. P. The Kailása mountain, the fabled Paradise of ´Siva is placed by the Hindus, north of the Máṇasa lake and regarded as one of the loftiest peaks of the Himalayas. Vide Vol. II, 313, n. 2.
↩This fable is taken from the Mahábhárata and inserted in the 7th Chapter, Book IV, of the Vishṇu Puráṇa. In this, Ráma uses his axe to cut off his mother's head at the command of his father, who restored her again to life at his son's request. The sons of Kárttavírya are there said to revenge the death of their father by slaying Jamadagni in Ráma's absence.
↩He was the son of Víśravas, son of Pulastya, son of Brahmá.
↩The literature of the Rámá[email protected] in various languages is sufficiently well-known to dispense with a reference to the details of this Avatára.
↩For ‘city’ read ‘country.’ Magadha is here intended, of which the capital was Rájagṛiha. According to Spencer Hardy it is called Makata by the Burmans and Siamese, Mo-ki-to by the Chinese, and Makala Kokf by the Japanese. See ‘Manual of Buddhism,’ p. 140, on the Buddha's five perceptions regarding the character of the period, the continent, country, family and day of Buddha-manifestations. The city of Kapilavastu is supposed to have witnessed the birth of the last. According to Hardy, Buddha was said to have been born “on Tuesday, the day of the full moon in the month of Wesak, the nekata [Nakshatra (?)] being Wisa [Vísakhá (?)]” But as he justly observes, it is easy to be minute when the annalist consults only his imagination.
↩See Vol. II, p. 16, n. 1. He is to appear on a white horse with a flashing sword for the final destruction of Mlechchhas and those that love iniquity, and to re-establish righteousness. The similarity of the idea and expression to the Apocalyptic vision of the white horse and its rider will readily occur to mind and the analogy between some of these manifestations and certain scenes in the New Testament has often been observed, and is not the result of accident.
↩Prohibitions and permissions in regard to food and ceremonial purification are treated in the V. Lecture of Manu's Ordinances. Albírúní says that he was informed by Hindus that before the time of Bhárata, the meat of cows was permitted, and cows were killed at certain sacrifices, and that the reason of the prohibition was their unwholesomeness as food. In a hot climate the inner parts of the body are cold, the natural warmth is feeble and the digestion is so weak, that it has to be strengthened by chewing the betel-nut. The betel inflames the bodily heat, the chalk in the betel leaves dries up everything wet, and the betel-nut acts as an astringent on the teeth, gums and stomach. Hence cow's meat was forbidden as it is essentially thick and cold. II. Chapter 58.
↩Sour liquids, according to Manu, curdled milk and all produced from it and all liquids pressed from pure flowers, roots and fruits may be drunk. V. 10. By the purifying effects of certain food, sacrificial food is meant. Manu. V. 105, n. 5.
↩In Manu, boiling cow's urine, milk, ghee, liquid cow dung, or spirituous liquor. The punishment is for a Bráhman and is equivalent to death. XI. 91-92, and n. 3.
↩Milk, buttermilk, ghee, dung of a cow and its urine.
↩Manu. V. 108. Burnell uses the word ‘velocity.’
↩The word is ‘kirm’ a worm in the text, but rendered lice in Manu.
↩Mahápátakin. See post p. 297, n. 2.
↩See p. 121, n. 2.
↩These last two in the text seem included in the exception, but the pond-heron or paddy-bird at least is expressly forbidden by Manu. v. 13.
↩The last named, of which there are several variants, and the second and third, are not in Manu who mentions the paṭhína and simhatuṇda which together with the rájíva and rohu or rohita are declared to be lawful, but the commentator Medha-tithi limits the two latter to use at sacrificial ceremonies. I do not find the Patthar-chaṭa mentioned in Day's Fishes of India. Stone-licking is common to a good many if not to all. The Sankára is perhaps, a skate, the Raia ´Sankur; Rájíva signifies streaked or striped, and is mentioned by Monier Williams as a fish whose spawn is said to be poisonous. I cannot identify it nor the following name Bárahi. The rhinoceros is a disputed animal, M. V. 18, n. 6.
↩A variant omits the negative, but Manu is distinct on the point and forbids the milk of animals with a solid hoof.
↩Slaying a Bráhman, drinking spirituous liquor, theft, adultery with the wife of a Guru are the four great crimes; associating with those who commit them is the fifth. Manu IX, 235, and XI, 55.
↩Curdled milk and all produced from it are expressly allowed. V. 10.
↩ The text has by mistake
These being sacred; the flowers of the Asclepeas are placed upon the idol Mahádeva. It secretes an acrid milky juice which flows from wounds in the shrub, and is applied to various medicinal purposes, and preparations of the plant are employed to cure all kinds of fits, epilepsy, hysterics, convulsions, poisonous bites. The flowers are large and beautiful, a mixture of rose and purple: there is also a white-flowered variety. Roxburgh, “Flora Indica.”
↩´Siva's night, a popular festival in honour of ´Siva kept on the 14th of the dark half of the month of Mágha (Jan.– Feb.) When ´Siva is worshipped under the type of the Linga, a rigorous fast is observed. Monier Williams.
↩Or darbha, the name specially of the kuśa-grass (Poa Cynosuroides) used at sacrificial ceremonies, but also applied to the ´Saccharum spontaneum and S. cylin dricum.
↩Both are games of hazard: the latter is also called solah-bagghu. The names are derivatives from the numerals four and sixteen respectively, chaupar having two transverse bars in the form of a cross drawn on the playing cloth, and the other played with a number of lines drawn on the ground.
↩Taken in this sense by Sir W Jones, and confirmed by the commentator Medhátithi, but Hopkins translates “with women born of one's own mother.” Manu, XI. 59.
↩The variant in the notes is correct and I have adopted it instead of the reading of the text which makes the woman the wife of the castes that follow. See Manu, XI. 67.
↩To the gods, manes and men, are the three debts with which man is born. XI. 66, n. 7. Hopkins.
↩In Manu, cutting down green trees for firewood.
↩That is teaching the Vedas for hire working in mines and dykes and bridges and other mechanical works, serving a ´Súdra, all of which are forbidden.
↩With hand or staff. Medhátithi. XI. 68. n. 11. Hopkins.
↩ The variant
A variant has kotahpáe which in Vol. II. p. 338, n. I., I have rendered as the hog-deer (cervus porcinus) for reasons therein given. All forest animals are forbidden to be killed by Manu.
↩‘On trifling occasions,’ according to Sir. W. Jones. Hopkins omits the condition altogether.
↩The penance is doubled for a Kshatriya, and trebled and quadrupled for the next two castes.
↩The text has erroneously Matva. Mama-tva signifies literally, mine-ness, as Ahankára signifies as literally ego-ism.
↩This is taken from Manu, XII. 5, 6, 7 Resolving on forbidden things is defined by a commentator as desiring to kill a Bráhman and the like, and the third in conceiving notions of materialism and atheism.
↩Properly injury without sanction of law, that is, to animals except at authorised sacrifices, to men when not inflicted as legal penalties: Manu, XII. 7, n. 2.
↩Properly Narma-dá, giving pleasure; commonly, Nerbudda.
↩Rohtás or Rotas near Jhelum, overlooks the Kuhán Nadí according to the I. G. I find no river of this name in the Punjab, but the Kosi another name for the Kauśikí in Behar, is well known and its location there is properly assigned. Gaṛhí is a parganá of Purneah through which district the river flows. Keith Johnston gives it also the name of the Saukhussi which the I. G. treats as another river joining the Brahmaputra, but not traceable in his map.
↩Monier Williams gives a Nandátirtha apparently connected with a river which he cannot identify.
↩The same as the Kauśiki, Satyavatí, the mother of Jamadagni, father of Parnśuráma became the Kauśikí river. The recurrence of the same name is noticed by Wilson in his enumeration of the rivers who attributes it either to the error of a copyist, or to one name being applied to different rivers: in this case different names to the same river.
↩See Vol. II. pp. 223, 226, 238.
↩The Parvatí in Málwa, Wilson V. P.
↩This cannot, of course, be the Ḍváraka known as Kṛishna's capital in Káthíawár. In some MSS. the name Dváraka is omitted as well as the Gandakí, and the words in the text “upon the banks of which,” &c., follow immediately after “Gomatí.” There must be some error in the transcription. Sultánpúr is on the Gumti, 150 miles from the Gandak.
↩Wilford considers it the Mahánada which falls into the Ganges below Malda, but Trelawney Saunders places it below the mouths of the Orissa Mahánadí.
↩According to the I. G. there are two of this name. One rising in the hills N. of Jeypore and falling into the Jumna after a course of 200 miles. Another rising S. of Nepal bounding the Oudh terai and joining the Burhi Rapti at Karmanighát. This is called the ‘arrow’ (váṇa) river, perhaps from the legend of Rávaṇa cleaving a hill with a shaft, from which a river is said to have arisen. Wilford gives this name to the Sarávatí (full of reeds), now called the Rámgangá. The name applies to the thickets of reeds on its banks where Kárrtikeya was born. (As. Res. XIV 409). I do not observe this name applied to the Godavari.
↩In Tinnevelli. The name occurs in the Rámáyana.
Pass Tamraparní's flood whose isles
Are loved by basking crocodiles,
The Sandal woods that fringe her side
Those islets and her waters hide;
While like an amorous matron, she
Speeds to her own dear lord, the Sea.
Griffiths. IV. X. LI.
↩I conceive this to be the Son, which is supposed to derive its name from the Sansk. ´Sona, crimson. It is the Erannoboas of Arrian and Pliny, though the point is disputed as both this and the Sonus are apparently applied to two rivers. Its Sanskrit epithets are Hiraṇyá váhu (or golden armed) and Hiraṇya váhas (auriferous). Parṇa, signifies both feather and leaf and may be a fanciful adjunct to ‘crimson,’ but varṇa signifying ‘colour’ has a higher degree of probability in its favour than may be found for most verbal analogies The last name (18) I cannot identify.
↩See p. 298, n. 2.
↩ I read
The anniversary of the birth of Ráma. V. p. 291.
↩The text has erroneously Kántí: Kánchivaram is the source of the vulgar name. In Hiouen Thsang's time it was a great Buddhist centre, but subsequently fell under the Jain influence, which was succeeded in turn by Hindu predominance. The I. G. mentions its pyramids and the thousand-pillared temple with its splendid porch and fine jewels as still attracting visitors. As many as 50,000 pilgrims attend the annual fair in May. It is called the Benares of the South. I. G.
↩The former is the anniversary of the birth of Kṛíshṇa, i. e., adding 15 days of the light half to 8 of the dark half, making it the 23rd day. The second festival is connected with the legend of the Serpent Kálíyá. See. Vish. Pur. V. 7.
↩Dipálí in Sansk., a row of lamps. The day of the new moon in the month of Kárttika, on which there are nocturnal illuminations in honour of Kárttikeya, the god of war. The night is often spent in gambling.
↩There are variants of three other months, Vaísákha, (April–May), Phálguṇa (Feb.–March) and Kúar (Sept.–Oct. Sansk. A´śvina), but the reading of the text is correct. The sun enters Capricorn in that month, and is regarded as a most propitious period for ceremonies of marriage and the like.
↩Kángra. See. Vol. II, p. 312.
↩“Brahmá, then, being desirous of creating the four orders of being termed gods, demons, progenitors, and men, collected his mind into itself; whilst thus concentrated the quality of darkness pervaded his body and thence the demons (the Asuras) were first born, issuing from his thigh. This form aban doned by him which embodied darkness became night; the quality of goodness then becoming embodied, from his mouth issued the gods; this form abandoned became day. Thus the gods are powerful by day, the demons at night. Vish. Pur. I. 5.
↩See p. 286. n. 6.
↩Town, lake and shrine in Ajmere-Merwár, Rájputana. It is the only town in India having a temple dedicated to Brahmá who here performed a sacrifice whereby the lake became so holy that the greatest sinner is absolved by bathing therein. The five principle temples are to Brahmá, Sávitri, Badri Náráyaṇa, Váraha and ´Siva A´tmataśvara. No living thing can be put to death within the limits of the town. This place is evidently meant by the name Pûkara in Albírúni (Cap. LXVI) among the sacred places of the Hindus. He adds its story as follows: “Brahman once was occupied in offering these to the fire when a pig came out of the fire. Therefore they represent his image there as a pig. Outside the town in three places, they have constructed ponds which stand in high veneration.” Sachan's Trans.—Monier Williams says it is now called Pokur.
↩This is the exact transliteration, but I apprehend Badri Náth in Garhwál is meant. In Badri-Náráyana, the latter word which is a patronymic form of Nara, the chief or original man, would admit of inclusion under manusha. Khusháb I cannot identify.
↩In Manu Bráhma. III. 21, 27. Abul Fazl uses the adjectival form.
↩ I do not find this condition. It
might possibly mean inferior in caste
but in that sense Abul Fazl uses
Properly in seven steps. The marriage is not completed till the seventh step is taken. Manu, VIII. 227, and note. Hopkins.
↩“But they term the Daiva rite, the gift of a daughter, after having adorned her, to a sacrificial priest rightly doing his work in a sacrifice begun.” Manu, III. 28, Burnell. That is, the maiden is part of his fee.
↩In the text incorrectly Rájápatya. “The gift of the maiden is called the Prájápatya rite (when made) after reverencing and addressing (the pair) with the words, ‘together do ye both your duty.’” Ibid. 30. The A´rsha rite is the commonest form now. Burnell.
↩A recognised sale is here meant. This form is practised at the present day by people claiming to be Bráhmans, e g., the ´Saiva Bráhmans called Gurukkal in Southern India, who seldom can get wives for less than a thousand rupees. It often happens that low caste girls are palmed off upon them. Manu, III. 31, n. 2.
↩Manu orders them differently. The six first, he says, are legally for a Bráhman, the four last for a Kshatriya, and the same for a Vaiśya and ´Súdra, except the Rákshasa form. Others, he observes, consider the four first approved for a priest; one, the Rákshasa, for a soldier; and that of the A´suras for a merchant or one of the servile class; “but in this code, three of the five last are held legal and two illegal. The ceremonies of the Pisáchas and A´suras must never be performed.” —Sir W. Jones. According to the commentator, this last prohibition is for the Kshatriya not for the Bráhman.
↩The ´Satapatha Bráhmana, and the Mahábharata differ a little from the text and from each other; in Manu they are reckoned as ten. The seven Ṛishis form in Astronomy, the Great Bear. Monier Williams, S. D.
↩Among the Bráhmans, twenty-four gotras are reckoned, supposed to be sprung from and named after celebrated teachers, as ´Saṇdilya, Kaśyapa, Gautama, Bharad-vája, &c. Ibid.
↩“A man aged thirty years, may marry a girl of twelve, if he find one dear to his heart, or a man of twenty-four years, a damsel of eight; but if he should finish his studentship earlier and the duties of his next order would otherwise be impeded, let him marry immediately.” M. IX, 94. Sir W. Jones.
↩An instance occurs, among many, in the well-known epic of Nala and Damyantí. The practice is conceded in Manu (IX. 92), but as Hopkins observes, only out of respect for the old custom and was not practised at that date. Yájnavalkya and others permit it when there are no relatives to give away the girl in marriage. Some early writers conceded it without distinction of caste: in the epic it is confined to royal maidens: among later commentators it is restricted to the lower castes.
↩Hindi. Singár, dress or ornament.
↩The jáma is described in the dictionaries as being a long gown from eleven to thirty breadths in the skirt, folded into many plaits in the upper part and double-breasted on the body and tied in two places on each side.
↩ In the text,
I refer the reader for an explanation of these ornaments to the Persian text of the 1st Vol. of the Aín-i-Akbarí which contains in the pages succeeding the preface, plates of the jewels here mentioned and a descriptive catalogue of the whole series.
↩Dr. King, Superintendent, Royal Botanical Gardens, whose invaluable aid is never withheld and never at fault, on my reference to him informs me that, this is the Nigella sativa sometimes called the N. Indica, and is not a native of Hinḍustan, but domesticated. The seeds are largely used in cookery, and in Bengal are named Kala jíra or black Cumin-seed. The flower has a calyx of delicate fibres dishevelled in appearance and is commonly known as “Love-in-mist.” From the specimen Dr. King has been good enough to send me, the ornament imitates the appearance admirably.
↩See n. 1, p. 409, Vol. II.
↩This and the following are omitted by Blochmann.
↩The text duplicates the t incorrectly.
↩This is usually written with a hard r, and for Chúríṅn below, the dictionaries give chúṛí.
↩This was one of the seven unequalled treasures possessed by Khusran Parvíz. It was said to be a piece of gold that might be held in the hand and as ductile as wax. The others were his throne Tághdís; his treasure called the Bádávard, or wind-borne, because being conveyed by sea to the Roman emperor, the vessel was cast upon his shores; his horse shabdíz; his minstrel Bárbud; his minister Sháhpúr, and above all his incomparable wife Shirín.
↩
From the well-known great salt-lake in the States of Jaipúr, and Jodhpúr of which the Govt. of India are lessees by treaty. The out-turn in 1883-84 was 71,111, 353 maunds, giving a net revenue of £746,716. Under Akbar it was worked by the Imperial administration. I. G.
↩From the Arabic Shabakat, a fishing net, a lattice; i. e., any reticulated work. Munabbat comes from the Arabic root ‘nabt’ and is pass. part. of II. conj., ‘to cause to grow out’; hence repoussé-work.
↩This word has three variants by alteration of the diacritical points. The editor cannot determine the correct reading nor the pronunciation. I have therefore chosen conjecturally what appears to me the most probable term. Charm signifies leather and the granulated kind of it called kímukht or shagreen (from the Pers. Sághari) would represent the style of work which the text refers to. The granulation of the shagreen is produced by embedding in the leather when it is soft, the seeds of a kind of chenopodium and afterwards shaving down the surface. The green colour is produced by the action of sal-ammoniac on copper filings.
↩By these are meant the Ahír and Kurmí castes or shepherds and agriculturists, from whose hands Bráhmans and Kshatriyas will drink, the inferior Súdras being Chamárs and the like who are held unclean.
↩ This requires explanation. The day
is divided into 60 daṇḍas = 24 hours, the
four divisions of which allow 15 daṇḍas
to every six hours. Now each of the
28 asterisms (v. p. 21) is symbolised by
a fanciful name of four letters: e. g., the
first asterism Aśviní is called chú, ché,
chó, lá, the second Bharaṇí ló, lú, lé, lá.
To each of the periods of six hours a
letter is allotted, as chú from 6 a. m. to
noon, ché from noon to 6. p. m., chó from
6 p. m. to midnight, and lá from midnight
to 6 a. m. A child born in the first period
has a name beginning with chú, as Churámini:
in the second with ché, as Chét-Rám,
and so on. This is termed the ráśi
name from
The transliteration is incorrect. The luni-solar year of Vikramáditya begins from this festival.
↩Dedicated to the worship of Lakshmí, the goddess of prosperity, wife of Vishṇu.
↩Aśoka is the tree Jonesia Aśoka which is held sacred. In a grove of these trees Síta, the wife of Ráma, was imprisoned in Lanka by Rávana. Rámáyana; Sundar Khánḍa.
↩Cf. p. 17. Vol. II. The two modes of reckoning, viz., by the mukhya chándra or principal lunar month which ends with the conjunction, and the gauṇa-chándra or secondary lunar month which ends with the opposition, are both authorized by the Puráṇás. The latter mode begins the month with the Krishṇa paksha or dark half of the month, in which the differences of reckoning occur; the Sukla-paksha or light half from which the mukhya-chándra reckoning begins, is the same, of course, for both modes, and therefore no difference can arise. Cf. Sir W. Jones. “Lunar months of the Hindus.” Works I. 374.
↩It is also sacred to Gaurí, wife of Mahádeva; the image of Gaurí is washed and dressed, lamps are lit and perfumes offered and abstinence from eating is enjoined, and they play with swings. This festival is for women only. Cf. Albírúni, Chap. LXXXI, on these festivals.
↩Vulg. Dusserah. There are two festivals, viz., that in the text, which is the birthday of Ganga, in which whoever bathes in the Ganges is said to be purified from ten sorts of sins, and the second on the 10th of A´śvin Sukla-paksha (Hind. Kúár, Sept.–Oct.) in honour of Durga. This worship contiunes for nine nights, and images of Deví are thrown into the river. Ráma is said to have marched against Rávaṇa on this day and hence it is called Vijay-dásamí or the Victorious Tenth. It is held as a most auspicious day for all undertakings and especially for operations of war. A fourth festival, the Bhímaikádaśí is held on the 11th Sukla-paksha in honour of Bhíma, the son of Páṇḍu. It is commonly called Nirjalaikádaśí, and is a fast on which, as the name betokens, even water is not drunk. Another Bhímaikádaṣí is in the Sukla-paksha of Mágha (Jan.–Feb).
↩This is called the Vyása-púja, in honour of Vyása the divider of the Vedas. He is supposed to be represented on this festival by the teachers or gurus
↩Abul Fazl has omitted the name. A snake is worshipped on this day to preserve children from their bites. The text also omits altogether the third festival, the ´Srávaṇí, held by Bráhmans only, spent in reading the Vedas and bathing and changing the sacred thread.
↩That is with those who take the beginning of the month from Kṛishṇa-paksha of ´Sravaṇa or Bhádra-pada, it will fall on the 8th; with those who begin with the following Sukla-paksha of Bhádra-pada, it will fall on the 23rd of Bhádra-A´svin, making the difference of the month as before stated. The festival of the fourth is called Gaṇesha-chaturthí, the birthday of Gaṇesha. The fifth is Ṛishí-pañchamí, a fast in honour of the Ṛishis. The sixth is called Lalitá Shashṭhí, and in Hindi Lalhi chhaṭ and also Gayhat as Albírúni observes (XVI). In Kanauj it is known by the latter name.
↩Kanya-gata is the dark lunar fortnight of this month and the name and period mark the position of a planet, especially Jupiter in the sign Virgo (Kanya).
↩This is the name of the Daitya prince whom Vishṇu subdued in the dwarf incarnation. (v. p. 288). A great deal of gambling goes on for three nights. They give alms and bathe and make presents of areca nuts to each other. It is said that Lakshmi, wife of Vasudeva, once a year on this day liberates Bali from the nether world and allows him to go about the earth. Cf. Albírúni.
↩The second is called the Yama-dvitíyá (Hind. Jam-dutyá) when brothers and sisters dress up and exchange gifts and compliments in allusion to the attachment between Yama and his twin sister Yamuna. He is regarded in post-Vedic mythology as the Judge of the dead and is regent of the S. quarter. The ninth is called kúshmáṇḍa-navamí, presents being made to Bráhmans of the kúshmáṇḍa (Hind. koṅnhrá), a kind of gourd (Cucurbita pepo). The 11th is the Utthánaikádasí when Vishṇu is said to rise from sleep. The Díwálí is well-known, the nocturnal illuminations being in honour of Kárttikeya.
↩It is auspicious for all undertakings connected with commerce.
↩This festival is held in honour of Mahádeva. The powders are made of rice-meal, Indian arrowroot, Singhára (water chestnut, trapa bispinosa), or barley-meal, and dyed with baḳam-wood (Cœsalpina sappan): only two colours are allowed, yellow or red.
↩‘Holiká’ is said to be the name of a female Rákshasí, killed and burnt by ´Siva on this day, but her penitence for the fault of a too turbulent disposition secured for her the promise of this annual celebration in her remembrance, and that all who performed this worship, in this month, would be prosperous for the year. See Mahátmya of Phálguna, which quotes the Bhavishya Puráṇa Songs are sung in honour of Krishṇa of the broadest and coarsest kind.
↩V. p. 298, n. 2. It is mentioned in some Dictionaries as occurring on the 14th of the dark half of Mágha, but this is also counted as Phálguna by those who begin the month with the Kṛishṇa-paksha, the same fortnight being either one or the other, according to the order of the primary or secondary lunar months.
↩