A'in-i Akbarī - The Ain-i-Akbarī, Volume 3

In presenting the concluding Volume of the Áín-i-Akbari to the public, I may permit the prefatory remarks of its author to serve as its best introduction. The range and diversity of its subjects and the untiring industry which collected and marshalled, through the medium of an unfamiliar language, the many topics of information to their minutest details, treating of abstruse sciences, subtile philosophical problems, and the customs, social, political and religious of a different race and creed, will stand as an enduring monument of his learned and patient diligence. Comparing his work with the modern development of statistical science and our present accurate and exhaustive methods of tabulating the resources and summarising the extent of knowledge, the changes in the prevailing religious beliefs, in the laws, and in the administration of a state, and all that marks the relative, material and moral progress or decadence of a nation at any definite period, though there is much to be desired, his comprehensive and admirable survey yet merits the highest praise. He had intended to compare the Hindu systems of philosophy with those of Greece and Persia and to conclude the review with his own criticisms on the several merits of these schools, but he laboured under the disadvantage of unfamiliarity with Sanskrit and he had to take the statements of his Pandits tested through translations at second-hand. He found his Hindu informants, as he says, of a retrograde tendency, spinning like silk worms, a tissue round themselves, immeshed in their own opinions, conceding the attainment of truth to no other, while artfully insinuating their own views, till the difficulty of arriving at any correct exposition of their systems left him in a bewilderment of despair. How in later times his Brahman Pandit, succeeded in deluding Wilford, is related by that scholar when he announced the “distressful discovery” in his essay on the Sacred Isles of the West. Abul Fazl had the wit or good fortune to escape imposition and his description of the Nine Schools of Philosophy, has the merit of being, as far as it goes, scrupulously precise.

Sir W. Jones in his essay on the Musical modes of the Hindus, reproaches Muhammedan writers in general for the untrustworthiness of their renderings of a foreign author's meaning in their own versions. “My experience,” he says, “justifies me in pronouncing that the Moghols have no idea of accurate translation, and give that name to a mixture of gloss and text with a flimsy paraphrase of them both: that they are wholly unable, yet always pretend, to write Sanskrit words in Arabic letters: that a man who knows Hindus only from Persian books, does not know the Hindus; and that an European who follows the muddy rivulets of Muselman writers on India, instead of drinking from the pure fountain of Hindu learning, will be in perpetual danger of misleading himself and others. From the just severity of this censure, I except neither Abul Fazl nor his brother Faizí, nor Mohsan-i Fání, nor Mirzá Khán himself: and I speak of all four after an attentive perusal of their works.” This severe criticism was consequent on the perusal of a Persian book containing a minute account of Hindu literature in all or most of its branches, composed by ‘the very diligent and ingenious Mirzá Khán,’ who professed to have extracted his chapter on music with the assistance of Pandits from several Sanskrit treatises, among them the Sangítá Darpana of which a Persian translation existed. The experience of this eminent scholar was wide and profound and he never advanced an opinion without strong or at least plausible reasons in its support. It is natural to expect that historians of a dominant, proselytising and intolerant creed like that of Islám, who seldom spoke of the Hindus and their beliefs without consigning them to perdition, should be at little pains to understand the tenets they condemned as idolatry, and regarding them from the point of view of their professors, to set them forth in the dry light of calm philosophical inquiry. But this is what Abul Fazl and Muḥsan i Fání—to mention only these two—explicitly profess to have done, and Sir William Jones' sweeping censure may be tempered by his opinion of the latter writer in another passage of his works where he calls him a learned and accurate author. It is doubtful whether the MSS. of the Áín at that time available, allowed him to read the chapters on Hindu philosophy so as to judge of the fidelity of its exposition. He mentions Abul Fazl's name, to the best of my recollection, but once again in connection with the chapter on music, which he describes as superficial. No work of Abul Fazl's, nor any on Hindu philosophy appears in the catalogue of Oriental MSS. in his possession. Nevertheless his assurance must suffice, and to so brilliant an intellect and so omnivorous a reader who had read twice through the whole Sháhnámah and once the entire mystical poem of Jalálu'ddín Rúmí in manuscript; who had perused and translated innumerable other works on almost all branches of Eastern and Western literature, not to mention the works of, and five commentaries on, Confucius in Chinese, the additional volumes of Abul Fazl would have been of little account. To the charge of a vicious transliteration of Sanskrit terms into Arabic, all these writers, including the greater name of Albírúní, are more justly amenable, and I have occasionally pointed out in the notes to the text, the almost unintelligible form of Abul Fazl's transcripts. This was in a large measure due to ignorance of Sanskrit and the absence of any precise system of the phonetic representation of its letters. But when we observe even in modern times, the same fault among the Orientalists of the West and the vagaries of transliteration in Freytag, Weil, Hammer-Purgstall, De Guignes, D'Herbelot, Pococke, Ockley and a host of others, the reproach cannot be fairly pointed at Muhammedan writers alone. The difficulty was felt by Albírúní with a pathetic acknowledgment of the hopelessness of remedy. “Some of the consonants” he says (I employ Sachau's translation with some freedom), “of which the language is composed are neither identical with those of Arabic and Persian nor resemble them in any way. Our tongue and uvula can scarcely manage to pronounce them correctly, nor our ears distinguish them from similar sounds, nor can we transliterate them accurately. It is very difficult, therefore, to express an Indian word in our writing, for in order to fix the pronunciation we must change our orthographical points and signs, and must pronounce the case-endings either according to the common Arabic rules or according to special rules adapted for the purpose. Add to this, that the Indian scribes are careless and do not take pains to produce correct and well collated copies. In consequence, the highest results of the author's mental development are lost by their negligence, and his book becomes in the first or second copy so full of faults that the text appears as something entirely new. It will sufficiently illustrate the matter if we tell the reader, that we have sometimes written down a word from the mouth of Hindus, taking the greatest pains to fix its pronunciation, and that afterwards when we repeated it to them, they had great difficulty in recognising it.”

I have indicated at the beginning of the 2nd Volume (p. 2), the striking resemblance of a passage in the text to the opening of the third chapter of Albírúní's Chronology and suggested a plagiarism. After a careful study of both these authors, I am the more convinced that Abul Fazl borrowed the idea and arrangement of his work from his great predecessor. I have shown in his account of the Sarkár of Kábul instances of direct plagiarism from the Memoirs of Baber, and in his lives of Moslem Saints in the third Volume, verbatim extracts without acknowledgment from the Ṣúfic hagiography of Jámí. The same volume displays other examples, suggestive rather than definite, of his indebtedness to an author whom he never names. The difference between the two men in this particular is most remarkable. Albírúní's reading was far more extensive and scholarly. The Sanskrit sources of his chapters are almost always given, and Sachau's preface has a list of the many authors quoted by him on astronomy, chronology, geography, and astrology. He was also acquainted with Greek literature through Arabic translations, and in comparing its language and thought and those of Hindu metaphysics, selects his quotations from the Timœus and its commentator the Neo-Platonist Proclus, with judgment and rare ability. His list of Greek authors, among others, includes Aristotle, Johannes Grammaticus, Porphyry, Apollonius, Aratus, Galenus, and Ptolemy. Zoroastrian, Christian, Jewish, Manichean and Ṣúfí sources are indicated by him, and he rarely fails to record his authorities. With Abul Fazl it is the reverse. He rarely names them, and borrows from every side without scruple as without avowal. The difference in the manner of the two authors is not less conspicuous. Albírúní quotes freely from his authorities and where these seem to exaggerate or to be inaccurate, his citations are followed by some sharp brief commentary which gives a ceaseless interest to his pages. Especially is this the case where their assertions can be brought to the searching test of mathematics to which he subjected the data of Indian astronomers in his examination of their system. In this latter science, according to his own account, he stood preeminent, and on his visit to India he had to learn, as a pupil, their national and traditional methods, but after he had made some progress, he began to act the teacher and to show them the scientific methods of mathematics in general, and they flocked from all parts to hear him, wondering from what Hindu Master he had learnt these things, and giving him the epithet of “The Sea.” His treatment of these topics is throughout scholarly, showing extensive reading and precision of thought acquired by a study of the exact sciences. Abul Fazl, on the contrary, transcribes either from existing works or from oral communication. His compilation is extremely careful and carried out with the most laborious and marvellous exactitude, but it is unenlivened by those masterly criticisms which give Albírúní his unique position among Eastern writers. It is certain that Albírúní's India was made use of largely by several authors, among them al-Gardezí who re-produced his account of the ´Saka era, and Rashídu'ddín, who transferred the whole of Chapter xviii into his chronicle. (Cf. Sachau. Pref. xliii). I have no hesitation in adding to these two the name of Abul Fazl. The charge of plagiarism against an Eastern writer is too common to be offensive. Nearly all are obnoxious to a reproach of which apparently they are unconscious, as none prefers it against another. The prevalence of the custom may condone its laxity among ordinary writers, but the great reputation, the bold and independent mind of Abul Fazl commands and deserves a nobler estimation, and the practice is unworthy of his fame. It is remarkable that he had intended, as he says, to arrange the Hindu systems of philosophy in due order and to weigh them with those of the Grecian and Persian schools. Albírúní in his preface expresses the same intention, which he practically carried out, mentioning similar theories among the Greeks as well as the ideas of the Ṣúfís and of some one or other Christian sect, in order to show the relationship existing between them, and that in the pantheistic doctrine of the unity of God there is much in common between these systems. The coincidence strengthens the strong probability of Abul Fazl's use of Albírúní's work, but he wisely refrained from undertaking a task which, I suspect, was beyond him and would have indicated too plainly the source of his erudition.

When all is said, however, which a strict impartiality must weigh in counterpoise to his sterling merits, there remains ample justification for the high place held by this great work in the West as well as the East, and as a record of the extension of the Moghul empire of India under the greatest of its monarchs and the ability with which it was administered, it must always remain of permanent and fascinating interest. It crystallizes and records in brief, for all time, the state of Hindu learning, and besides its statistical utility, serves as an admirable treatise of reference on numerous branches of Brahmanical science and on the manners, beliefs, traditions, and indigenous lore, which for the most part still retain and will long continue their hold on the popular mind. Above all, as a register of the fiscal areas, the revenue settlements and changes introduced at various periods, the harvest returns, valuations and imposts throughout the provinces of the empire, its originality is as indisputable as its surpassing historical importance. The concluding account of the author and his family and the persecutions to which they were subjected will, perhaps, be read with as much interest as any other portion of the work. The wanderings from house to house and refuge to refuge, of his father, his brother Faizi and himself, are told with an unconscious humour which its figurative and florid style render irresistibly droll in the original, and no finer or more biting comment on the worth and constancy of Eastern friendships was ever penned than may be found running like figured threads through the woven picture of this inimitable narrative. The notes to the text form a sufficient comment on the subjects with which it deals, and dispense with a further notice of them in this place. As to the manner in which the original has been rendered into English, I have studied to fulfil the aim of the greatest among Roman orators in translating two of the most celebrated orations of the greatest among the Greeks; “in quibus non verbum pro verbo necesse habui reddere, sed genus omnium verborum vimque servavi.” The issue, whether in success or failure, rests with the judgment of my readers.

I cannot conclude without acknowledging my indebtedness to Mr. Rizḳu'llah Azzún, Professor of Arabic to the Board of Examiners, for the care he has bestowed upon the Index to this Volume at a time when my duties gave me little leisure for so onerous a task. Its exhaustive fulness, and its accuracy, will be gratefully recognised by all who use it, and by none more than myself whose work so largely profits by its utility.

It has long been the ambitious desire of my heart to pass in review, to some extent, the general conditions of this vast country, and to record the opinions professed by the majority of the learned among the Hindus. I know not whether the love of my native land has been the attracting influence or exactness of historical research and genuine truthfulness of narrative, for Banákati,¹ Ḥáfiz A´brú and other ancient chroniclers have indulged in vain imaginings and recorded stories that have no foundation in fact. Nor were the motives altogether these, but rather that when I had arisen from the close retirement of studious application and discovered somewhat of the ignorance and dissensions of men, I formed the design of establishing peace and promoting concord. My original desire now renewed its possession of me, but a multiplicity of occupations prevented its gratification until the turns of fate brought about the composition of this striking record which has already branched out into such numerous details. Although my pen had occupied itself with the description of the Súbahs and had briefly recorded the annals of Hindustan, and now that the ambition of my heart had attained the time of its realisation, not content with the information I had already acquired, I had recourse to the knowledge of others and set myself to gather instruction from men of true learning. As I was unfamiliar with the science of terms in the Sanskrit language and a competent interpreter was not available, the labour of repeated translations had to be undertaken, until by good fortune and my own steadfastness of purpose, my object was at length attained. It then became clear that the commonly received opinion that Hindus associate a plurality of gods with the One Supreme Being has not the full illumination of truth, for although with regard to some points and certain conclusions, there is room for controversy, yet the worship of one God and the profession of His Unity among this people appeared facts convincingly attested.² It was indispensable in me, therefore, to bring into open evidence the system of philosophy, the degrees of self-discipline, and the gradations of rite and usage of this race in order that hostility towards them might abate, and the temporal sword be stayed awhile from the shedding of blood, that dissensions within and without be turned to peace and the thornbrake of strife and enmity bloom into a garden of concord. Assemblies for the discussion of arguments might then be formed and gatherings of science suitably convened.

Notwithstanding that at all periods of time, excellent resolutions and well-intentioned designs are to be witnessed and the extent of the world is never lacking in prudent men, why does misunderstanding arise and what are the causes of contention?

The First cause is the diversity of tongues and the misapprehension of mutual purposes, and thus the alloy of ill-will is introduced and the dust of discord arises.

Secondly, the distance that separates the learned of Hindustan from scientific men of other nationalities who thus are unable to meet, and if chance should bring them together, the need of an interpreter would preclude any practical result. An accomplished linguist capable of mastering the intricacies of science and the abstruse speculations of philosophy among various nations and competent to give them luminous and efficient expression, is very rare. Even at the present time, when through His Majesty's patronage of learning and his appreciation of merit, the erudite of all countries are assembled, and apply themselves with united effort in the pursuit of truth, so proficient a person is not to be found. Such as thirst after the sweet-waters of wisdom and who leaving their native land undertake the wanderings of travel and with diligent assiduity employ their energies in the acquisition of various languages, are indeed uncommon. It needs a seeker such as Anushirwán, who amidst the pomp of empire should yet search for the jewel of wisdom, and a minister like Buzurjmihr, void of envy, as his counsellor, and both king and minister combined, to discover a coadjutor so unique and one so upright and intelligent as the physician Barzawaih, and then to send him with abundant means disguised as a merchant to Hindustan in order that with this capital stock-in-trade he might obtain the interest of acquired wisdom; and again this sagacious personage, making no distinction between the absence or presence of his employers, must be diligent in his inquiries and succeed in the accomplishment of his desire through the frankness of his demeanour and his largesse of gold. Or the occasion would demand an indefatigable and lofty intellect like that of Ṭumṭum the Indian, who to receive the instruction of the divine philosopher Plato, passed from Hindustan into Greece and freighting his caravans with the requisites of travel, set himself to face the dangers of seas and deserts, and with the medicinal simples of wisdom perfected his spiritual health and the harmonious balance of his soul. Or a powerful mind and vigorous body such as Abu Maạshar of Balkh, enamoured of wisdom, who holding exile and his native country and toil and ease undissociated, travelled into India from Khorásán and garnered a store of knowledge at Benares and carried it as a gift of price to the learned of his own land.

Thirdly, the absorption of mankind in the delights of corporeal gratification, for men regard the absence of beauty in an object as placing it beyond the pale of existence and therefore not to be thought of as worth acquisition or productive of enjoyment. Their fastidiousness is averse from listening to accounts of foreign peoples even by way of apologue. And forasmuch as their moral obliquity refuses to lend an ear and the glitter of this deceptive world lets fall a veil of ignorance before their eyes, what must be their state and how may grace illumine for them the lamp of guidance.?

Fourthly, indolence. Men account what is ready to hand as more precious than the chance of future possession and prefer ease to exertion. They will not undertake the trouble of profound investigation, and content with a superficial view, will not move a span's length to acquire a deeper insight. He alone is the true promoter of wisdom who, setting before his resolve the investigation of the concealed beauties of meaning, under the guidance of assiduous research and undaunted desire, plants his foot in the dread wilds of research, and reaches the goal of his ambition undismayed by countless labours, sustaining the burden of the road by the force of capacity on the shoulders of his ever resolute will.

Fifthly, the blowing of the chill blast of inflexible custom and the low flicker of the lamp of wisdom. From immemorial time the exercise of inquiry has been restricted, and questioning and investigation have been regarded as precursors of infidelity. Whatever has been received from father, director, kindred, friend or neighbour, is considered as a deposit under Divine sanction and a malcontent is reproached with impiety or irreligion. Although the few among the intelligent of their generation admit the imbecility of this procedure in others, yet will they not stir one step in a practical direction themselves.

Sixthly, the uprising of the whirlwind of animosity and the storms of persecution have stayed the few earnest inquirers from uniting to discuss their individual tenets and from meeting in friendly assemblies in a spirit of sympathy, and from distinguishing³ commonalty of bond from vital estrangement, under the guidance of impartiality, in order that error may be severed from truth and the why and the wherefore weighed in the scales of sound judgment. Even just monarchs, unconscious of their obligations, have herein neglected them. Arrogance and self-interest have intervened and occasions of intercourse have been marred by perplexities. Some have taken refuge in silence; others have found evasion in obscurity of language, while others again have extricated themselves by time-serving utterances. If temporal rulers had interested themselves in this matter and assuaged the apprehensions of men, assuredly many enlightened persons would have delivered their real sentiments with calmness of mind and freedom of expression. Through the apathy of princes, each sect is bigoted to its own creed and dissensions have waxed high. Each one regarding his own persuasion as alone true, has set himself to the persecution of other worshippers of God, and the shedding of blood and the ruining of reputation have become symbols of religious orthodoxy. Were the eyes of the mind possessed of true vision, each individual would withdraw from this indiscriminating turmoil and attend rather to his own solicitudes than interfere in the concerns of others. Amidst such unseemly discord, main purposes are set aside and arguments disregarded. If the doctrine of an enemy be in itself good, why should hands be stained in the blood of its professors? and even were it otherwise, the sufferer from the malady of folly deserves commiseration, not hostility and the shedding of his blood.

Seventhly, the prosperity of wretches without principle who deceitfully win acceptance by affected virtue and rectitude. Such as these do much harm and truths are obscured through unrecognition.

Cease, Abul Fazal, cease! The manifestations of divine wrath are illimitable and infinite are the marvels of their record. Loose not thy hand from the cord of peace seized by thy good intention. Follow out thy long projected design. Though some of thy hearers will attain to wisdom and meet in rejoicing union, yet many will fall into sorrows and reap bewilderment. Thanks be to God that thou are not a hostage to the lament of ignorance nor the extoller of those that are in bonds.

Hindustan is described as enclosed on the east, west and south by the ocean, but Ceylon, Achín, the Moluccas, Malacca and a considerable number of islands are accounted within its extent. To the north is a lofty range of mountains, part of which stretches along the uttermost limits of Hindustan, and its other extremity passes into Turkestan and Persia. An intermediate region lies between this and the vast frontiers¹ of China, inhabited by various races, such as Kashmír, Great and Little Tibet, Kishtawár and others. This quarter may therefore be likened to another ocean. Withal its magnitude of extent and the mightiness of its empire it is unequalled in its climate, its rapid succession of harvests and the equable temperament of its people. Notwithstanding its vast size, it is cultivated throughout. You cannot accomplish a stage nor indeed travel a kos without meeting with populous towns and flourishing villages, nor without being gladdened by the sight of sweet-waters, delightful verdure and enchanting downs. In the autumn and throughout the depth of winter the plains are green and the trees in foliage. During the rainy season which extends from the close of the sun's stay in Gemini to his entry into the sign of Virgo², the elasticity of the atmosphere is enough to transport the most dispirited and lend the vigour of youth to old age. Shall I praise the refulgence of its skies or the marvellous fertility of its soil? Shall I describe the constancy of its inhabitants or record their benevolence of mind? Shall I portray the beauty that charms the heart or sing of purity unstained? Shall I tell of heroic valour or weave romances of their vivacity of intellect and their lore? The inhabitants of this land are religious, affectionate, hospitable, genial and frank. They are fond of scientific pursuits, inclined to austerity of life, seekers after justice, contented, industrious, capable in affairs, loyal, truthful and constant. The true worth of this people shines most in the day of adversity and its soldiers know not retreat from the field. When the day is doubtful, they dismount from their steeds and resolutely put their lives to hazard, accounting the dishonour of flight more terrible than death, while some even disable their horses before entering the fight.

They are capable of mastering the difficulties of any subject in a short space of time and surpass their instructors, and to win the Divine favour they will spend body and soul and joyfully devote their lives thereunto. They one and all believe in the unity of God, and as to the reverence they pay to images of stone and wood and the like, which simpletons regard as idolatry, it is not so. The writer of these pages has exhaustively discussed the subject with many enlightened and upright men, and it became evident that these images of some chosen souls nearest in approach to the throne of God, are fashioned as aids to fix the mind and keep the thoughts from wandering, while the worship of God alone is required as indispensable. In all their ceremonial observances and usage they ever implore the favour of the world-illumining sun and regard the pure essence of the Supreme Being as transcending the idea of power in operation.

Brahma, of whom mention was formerly made,¹ they hold to be the Creator; Vishnu, the Nourisher and Preserver; and Rudra, called also Mahadeva, the Destroyer. Some maintain that God who is without equal, manifested himself under these three divine forms, without thereby sullying the garment of His inviolate sanctity, as the Nazarenes hold of the Messiah. Others assert that these were human creatures exalted to these dignities through perfectness of worship, probity of thought and righteousness of deed. The godliness and self-discipline of this people is such as is rarely to be found in other lands.

They hold that the world had a beginning, and some are of opinion that it will have an end, as will be mentioned hereafter.

An astonishing circumstance is this, that if an alien wishes to enter the Brahman caste, they would not accept him and were one of these to adopt another religion and subsequently desire to revert to his own, he would not be suffered so to do save in case of his apostasy under compulsion. They have no slaves. When they go forth to battle or during an attack by an enemy, they collect all their women in one building, and surround it with wood and straw and oil, and place on guard some trusty relentless men, who set fire to it when those engaged in fight despair of life, and these chaste women vigilant of their honour are consumed to death with unflinching courage.

In times of distress, moreover, should any one, though unconnected by ties of intimacy, implore their protection, they are prompt to aid and grudge neither property, life nor reputation in his cause.

It was also the custom in former times for each warrior in battle to challenge a foe and to encounter none other than him.

The soil is for the most part arable and of such productive power that the same land is sown each year and in many places three harvests and more are taken in a single twelve-month and the vine bears fruit in its first year.

Mines of diamond, ruby, gold, silver, copper, lead and iron abound. The variety of its fruits and flowers proclaim its luxuriance. Its perfumes and melodies, its viands and raiment are choice and in profusion. Its elephants cannot be sufficiently praised, and in parts of the country the horses resemble Arabs in breed and the cattle are uncommonly fine. But for its lack of cooled water, its excessive heats, the scarcity of grapes, melons and carpets, and of camels it was open to the cavils of the experienced. His Majesty has remedied these deficiencies. Saltpetre is now extensively used for its cooling properties, and high and low appreciate the benefit of snow and ice brought down from the northern mountains. There is a slender fragrant root called khas,¹ of which, under His Majesty's instructions, the fashion of constructing trellised chambers has come into vogue, and upon this if water be sprinkled, another winter arises amid the summer heats. Skilled hands from Turkestan and Persia under His Majesty's patronage, sowed melons and planted vines, and traders began to introduce in security the fruits of those countries, each in its season and with attention to their quality, which occasioned an abundance here when they were not procurable in their own. Through the favour of His Majesty, all products of art, and the manufacture of woollen and silken carpets and of brocades were extensively encouraged, and by means of the royal countenance so fine a breed of camels has been produced as to be equal to the dromedaries of Irák.

A summary view of India having been now given, I shall proceed with more particularity, still proffering but little out of much and recording one among a thousand details.

More than eighteen opinions on this point have been professed and extraordinary narratives put forward, and each describes a different genesis. It will be sufficient to mention three of them. The first is that God who has no equal, taking upon himself the form of man appeared under the special manifestation called Brahma already alluded to, and by his mere volition produced four sons, Sanak, Sanandan, Sanátan, and Sanatkumár. Each of these was commanded to engage in acts of creation, but lost in rapture of contemplation in the divine essence they neglected to comply. In anger, the Supreme being formed another design and came forth from his own forehead under another semblance and name as Mahádeva. His sublime immensity unfitted him for creative action. Ten¹ other sons issued from his volition and then from his body he fashioned the forms of male and female. The former was called Manu and the latter Sata-rúpá. These two are the progenitors of mankind.

Secondly, it is maintained that God² the Creator of the world, manifested himself under the form of a woman whom they call Mahá-Lachhmí. Three qualities are incorporated with her, Satva, Raja and Tama. When she willed to create the world, through the instrumentality of Tama, she manifested herself under another form which is called Mahá-Káli and also Mahá-Máyá. By her union with Satva, a further genesis proceeded called Saraswati, and at her command each brought forth a male and female and these two forms she herself inspired with life. Thus two beings were born of each. From Mahá-Lachhmí sprung Brahma under the form of a man, and Sri under the guise of a woman who is also called Sávitri. From Mahá-Káli, were brought forth Mahá-deva and Tri the latter of whom is also distinguished as Mahá-biddiya and Kámdhenu, and from Saraswati came forth Vishnu and Gauri. When these six forms took birth, Mahá-Lachhmí proceeded to their conjugal union, and joined Brahma with Tri, Gauri with Maha-deva, and Sri with Vishnu. The conjunction of Brahma and Tri produced an egg which Maha-deva divided into two parts,¹ from one of which originated the devatas, daityas and the like supernatural beings; from the other, men, animals, and the vegetable and mineral worlds.

The Third opinion is accounted the most authentic. In the work called, Súrya-Siddhánta² composed some hundreds of thousands of years ago, it is circumstantially related that towards the end of the Satya-yug, flourished the great Demon Maya. That sage was lost in astonishment at the wonders of creation, and confounded by his own ignorance, applied himself to a supplication of the sun to discover the mode in which creation was effected and passed some thousands of years in these entreaties and desires. After he had undergone surpassing trials, that bestower of radiance on the heavens and the earth appeared to him under a beautiful form and asked him what he desired. He said, “Draw back the veil from the marvels of the stars and the skies and from the mysteries of wisdom and illuminate the darkness of my understanding with the light of knowledge.” It was answered: “Thy desire shall be granted. In a certain shrine unite in spirit with me and a celestial being shall appear and instruct you in wisdom.” The seeker was comforted. He waited in expectation at the shrine appointed and near the close of the Satya-yug, the giver of his desire¹ appeared. The sage entered into much questioning regarding the mysteries of heaven and earth and received replies that satisfied him. The questions and answers were compiled in one volume under the name of the Súrya Siddhánta, and to this day the astronomy, of entire Hindustán is based upon it. In this work the origin of creation is said to be from the Sun, which is regarded as a divine manifestation. The Almighty Creator of the world formed a hollow sphere of gold composed of two parts which he rendered luminous with somewhat of His own glory and it was called the Sun. The Sun produced the signs of the Zodiac and from the same source sprung the four Vedas, and afterwards the moon, the ethereal fluid, air, fire, water and earth, in this order. From the ether he produced Jupiter; from the air, Saturn; from fire, Mars; from water, Venus; and from the earth, Mercury. Through the ten portals of the human frame-work he brought various matter into being. The ten portals are thus numbered: the two eyes, the two ears, the nose, the mouth, the navel, the anterior and posterior foramina, and the tenth, the crown of the head, which last is closed. It opens, however, at the time of death in some of those who are about to quit life and body, and this is considered singularly auspicious. His Majesty has increased the number of portals by the two breasts, and counts the number as twelve. After a long course the human race became of four kinds as shall be presently related.

The Hindu philosophers maintain that the elements have a spherical form² and they have added Ether³ to the number. They hold it to pervade all things and that no space is void of it. They do not incline to the notion of a celestial substance () but adopt the account of the spheres on the system of the Almagest¹ of Ptolemy. The Zodiac is divided into twelve signs, each of which is termed “rás.”

They are as follows:—

The Persian, Egyptian and Greek sages affirm the existence of a colourness body which is transparent and is not subject to growth, increase, decrease, disruption, conjunction nor dissolution, neither does it admit of tenuity nor density nor generation nor decay. It is not compounded of bodies variously organised, neither is it affected by heat, cold, moisture, nor dryness, nor can lightness or gravity be predicated of it. It possesses life and continuity of existence, and is not subject to desire or anger. It is called “asmán.”¹ The general opinion is that the Universe () includes nine spheres, but some think eight, others, eleven, others, seven, and it is even affirmed that there is but a single Kosmos.

The Hindu philosophers acknowledge the existence of the planets and fixed stars, but assert that their substance is of water² congealed like hail, and that they receive their light from the sun. Others maintain that it is from the moon, and that these luminous bodies dominate the aspects of fortune. They also hold the connection of a celestial spirit with each. Some suppose the stars to be human beings, who by suppressing the emotions of anger and desire, and by mortification and moral beauty of life, have reached this exalted eminence.

Saníchar¹ is Saturn (Saturday). Brihaspati is Jupiter (Thursday). Maṇgal is Mars (Tuesday). Aditya, the Sun (Sunday). The Hindus have more than a thousand names for the sun. His Majesty knows by heart the whole of these and uses them in his prayers, but the name Súraj is the one in common use among all classes. ´Sukra is Venus (Friday). Budh is Mercury (Wednesday). Soma is the Moon (Monday).

Each of these planets has several names, and each day of the week has a special connection with and is named after its planet, with the addition of the word ‘wár.’ Thus, Sunday which begins the week is called Aditya-wár; Monday, Soma-wár; Tuesday, Mangal-wár; Wednesday, Budhwár; Thursday, Brihaspati-wár; Friday, ´Sukra-wár; Saturday, Sanicharwár.

This is a round gong of mixed metal,² shaped like a griddle but thicker, made of different sizes; and suspended by a cord. It may be not sounded except by royal command, and accompanies the royal equipage.

The Hindu philosophers divide the day and night into four parts, each of which they call pahr. Throughout the greater part of the country, the pahr never exceeds nine gharis¹ nor is less than six. The ghari is the sixtieth part of a nychthemeron, and is divided into sixty parts, each of which is called a pal which is again subdivided into sixty bipal.

In order to ascertain and indicate the time, a vessel of copper or other metal is made of a hundred ṭánks² weight. In Persian it is called pingán, as an ancient sage sings,

Why reck'st thou of a world whose span
A clepsydra doth mete to man?³

It is in the shape of a bowl narrower at the lower part, twelve fingers in height and breadth. A perforation is made below to admit of a golden tube being passed through of the weight of one Máshá, and in length the breadth of five fingers. It is placed in a basin of pure water in a place undisturbed by the wind. When the bowl is full of water, one ghari is elapsed,⁴ and in order that this should be known to far and near, the gong is struck once, and for the second time, twice, and so on. When a pahr has elapsed, the number of gharis expired therein is first sounded and then more deliberately from one to four (according to the pahr), thus announcing the pahr struck. Thus when it is two pahr, (twelve o'clock), the gong is struck twenty-six times, taking the pahr at eight gharis. The Emperor Baber in his Memoirs writes: “When at the end of a pahr a certain number of gharis had elapsed, this number was sounded while the pahr just expired was unknown. I ordered that the number of the pahr should be repeated after a brief interval.” The Hindu philosophers account 360 breathings of a man in good health as a ghaṛí of time, and each is formed of six inspirations and respirations, of which 21,600 are drawn in the course of a nychthemeron.

The first is the Earth, over which is Water, but not encompassing it entirely. Above this is Fire, towards its northern extremity shaped like a myrobalan. Above this again is the Air, but its concave surface is not spherical. The Air is of nine kinds. Bhúváyu, is the atmosphere extending up to the height of forty-seven kos from the globe of the earth. It is volatile in every direction and is the region wherein rain, thunder and lightning take their origin. Avaha is the air from the last-mentioned body to the moon. Pravaha, from the second to Mercury. Udvaha from the third to Venus. Saṃvaha, from the fourth to the Sun. Suvaha, from the fifth to Mars. Parivaha, from the sixth to Jupiter. Parávaha, from the seventh to Saturn. Pravahánila, from the eight to the fixed stars. Day and night are formed by the revolution of this wind, with a movement from east to west, the other seven winds reversing this order of motion.¹ But their more authoritative opinion is that those seven form the Pravahánila, and are named after the seven planets and all revolve from east to west.² Their knowledge does not extend beyond the fixed stars. Ether transcends all other spheres and is unfathomable.

The mean motions of the planets which they call Madhyama differ from the Greek reckoning in the seconds and thirds. Thus, in a nychthemeron extending from midnight to midnight, the Súrya-Siddhánta gives the following calculations.

According to the Greeks.

The motion of the Planets is considered of their essence and is of equal velocity in all. When calculated in kos their rate of motion is said to be 11,858 yojana¹ and 3 kos in the space of a nychthemeron, and their direction is from west to east. The difference in their periods arises from the greater or less extent of their orbits, the superior being greater than those lower in position.

The progression of the fixed stars they consider to be somewhat similar to that of the planets, but differing from the Greeks, they assert that with regard to the Lunar stations, there is a motion of 54 seconds¹ in one year, or one degree in 66 years and 8 months. They² compute that the asterisms advance 27³ degrees from the beginning of Aries, or according to another calculation, having advanced 24 degrees, they have a retrograde motion till they reach the 28th degree of Pisces whence they return to Aries, and the same movement re-commences. The Ursa Major which is called in Sanskrit Sapta-ṛishi⁴ (the seven Sages) has a precession in one year of 17 seconds, 47 thirds from west to east, or one degree in 200 years and 6 months, and accomplishes its revolution. One sect considers the operation of these forces to depend solely on the power of the Almighty.

The ancient Greeks, including Aristotle, were ignorant of the motion of the fixed stars and Hipparchus observed a few¹ with a motion from east to west in the Zodiac, but he was unable to calculate their dimensions. Ptolemy determined the motion of the stars in longitude to be one degree in a hundred solar years. Ibn A´ạlam and others reckoned sixty. The observations of Naṣír'uddín Ṭúsi agree with this last, but Muhyi'ddín Maghrabi² and a number of experts at the same observatory discovered that Aldebaran, the Heart of Scorpio ( Scorpii), and others, advanced a degree in 66³ years. In the Gurgáni Tables (of Ulugh Beg) this is made to occur in 70 Yazdajirdi⁴ years, each of which is 365 years without a fraction.

The minutes of the diameters of each of the planets bear a proportionate ratio to the minutes of their circumference.¹

Each of these is called Nakshatra, and they are 27 in number, severally divided into 13 degrees and 20 minutes.

Note. I have taken the stars from Bapu Deva's translation of the Súrya-Siddhánta.

Altogether 221 stars. The moon never tarries in any one station more than 65½ ghaṛís or less than 54½.

Three degrees and twenty minutes of the 21st Nakshatra to 48' of the 22° Nakshatra have, for certain purposes, been separately designated Abhijit.¹

The Greeks reckoned 28 Lunar Stations and assigned 12 degrees, 51 minutes and 26 seconds to each. They are as follows.²

In all 66 or 67 stars.

In the following table will be found various particulars regarding the Planets.

[The form is given but the particulars are wanting in all the MSS. The entries were probably left to be made at a later time, and either forgotten or the information was never obtained. The details were the diameters and dimensions of the planets and their distances from the earth's centre in farsakhs and yojanas according to the Hindus, to Ptolemy and to modern astronomers, but as Albirúni observes, the Hindu astronomers themselves are not agreed in their computations. Pulisa reckons the diameter of the earth as 1,600 yojanas, and its circumference as 502614/15, whilst Brahmagupta reckons the former at 1,581 and the latter at 5,000 yojanas. The table of Yạḳúb-b-Ṭáriḳ, will be found in Albirúni's India, Vol. II, p. 68.]

The Hindu philosophers reckon seven magnitudes as follows:—

The Greeks mention six. The first they call the greatest (Akbar) and the sixth, the least (Asghar), and each comprised three degrees, the great, the mean and the less, each more important in proportion to its degree.¹ The intervals of the hexade were measured by sixths. Some supposed that a diameter of a star of the 1st magnitude was six times the diameter of the smallest; but a manifest error occurred in calculating the volumes and distances intervening, by concluding that the volume of a mean star of the 1st magnitude must therefore be six times larger than the volume of a star of the 6th magnitude. But Euclid has demonstrated in the last proposition of the 12th Book of the Elements, that circles are to one another as the squares on their diameters, that is, if the ratio of one diameter to another be one-half or less, there will be three times the ratio between the spheres. For instance, if the diameter of one sphere be half the diameter of another, the smaller sphere will be ½ of ½ of ½ or ⅛ of the larger; and if the diameter be ⅓, the smaller sphere will be ⅓ of ⅓ of ⅓ or ½7 of the larger, and so on. Therefore, if the case be as those have conjectured, the volume of a star of the 1st magnitude will be greater than that of one of the 6th by a very considerable difference.

The largest of the fixed stars that have been observed, is 222 times, and the smallest of them twenty-three times as large as the earth. From their multitude they cannot be numbered, but the position of 1022² has been fixed. Of these—

There are besides, 14 whose magnitudes are not catalogued, nine of which are obscure and five nebular. This is the theory of Ptolemy. According to Abdúl Raḥmán-b-Omar al Ṣúfi,’¹

The Earth is spherical and its centre is the centre of the Universe. The elevations and depressions caused by the action of water or violence of the winds do not affect its spheroidity. Its circumference is 5,059 yojana,² 2 kos, 1,154 daṇḍ. The ancient Greeks reckoned the circumference to be 8,000 farsakh³ and its diameter 2,5455/11 farsakh. Modern geometers give 6,700 farsakh for the circumference and 2,1637/11 farsakh for the diameter. All concur in making one farsakh equal to 3 miles.

The Hindu philosophers have the following rule for determining the diameter and circumference To find the circumference. Multiply the given diameter which they call biyáṇs⁴ by the multiplier 3,927 termed guṇit,⁵ and divide the product by the divisor 1,250 called bhág;⁶ and the quotient, labdhi⁷ will be the circumference.⁸ To find the diameter. Multiply the given circumference by 1,250 the former divisor, and divide the product by 3,927, the former multiplier, and the quotient will be the diameter. The rule of Archimedes as given in Greek works, is accepted by the Hindus in the same manner, as an approximate calculation. The gist of the rule is that the relation of the diameter to the circumference is the ratio of 7: 22, or about thrice the diameter and one-seventh. Any given diameter is multiplied by 22, and divided by 7, the quotient being the circumference. Again the circumference multiplied by 7 and divided by 22 gives the diameter. The fraction, however, is really less than 1/7 and greater than 10/71.¹ It is evident that the Hindu rule was unknown to the Greeks or they would have vaunted it in their own praise. Glory be to Him who alone knoweth the relation of the diameter to the circumference.

Now the method of ascertaining the diameter of the (earth's) circumference was after this manner. On a level plain by means of instruments like the astrolabe, the armillary sphere or the quadrant of altitude, taking the elevation of the north pole of the Equinoctial, they proceed northwards, or southwards on the meridian line guided by the astrolabe, and raise the vertical indices above the plane of the circle so that they cover one another. And thus a distance is traversed which exceeds, or is less than the elevation above-mentioned by one degree. If the advance be to the north, it will increase; if to the south, the reverse. The distance from beginning to end is measured and the result forms a degree. Thus the circumference is found.

The ancients by this operation found the degree to be 22 farsakh and 2/9 or 66⅔ miles. When the plain of Sanjár near Mausil, was selected by the Caliph Al Mámún for this experiment, Khálid-b.-Abdu'l Malik Marwarúdi with a body of scientific men went towards the north, and Ali.-b.-Isá Uṣṭurlábi with another to the south. The former party found the degree longer than the latter; for when each had measured their respective distances, it was found to be 188/9 farsakh or 56⅔ miles. The difference between the two was ⅔ of a mile.¹ Mámún as a test, asked the two parties the distance between Mecca and Baghdad. According to the above calculation, multiplying 12° 40' by 56⅔ miles which is a degree, they made the distance to be 720 kos.² By the order of the Caliph the most level and shortest route between the two cities was measured and the difference was found to be slight. It is strange that the accurate (Naṣíru'ddín) Ṭúsi in his Taḍkirah (u'l Náṣiríyah. Liber Memorialis de astronomia) should ascribe to the ancients what is related of the astronomers of Mámún's age regarding the measurement of a degree in the plain of Sanjár. Mulla Ḳuṭbu'ddín Shirázi³ in his Tuḥfat (u'l Sháhíyah donum regium) and other works, expresses the opinion of the moderns in regard to the astronomers of that Caliph, in the manner I have related. There has been undoubtedly a slip of the pen in the Taḍkirah. The Hindu astronomers make the degree 14 yojanas, 436 ḍanḍ, 2 cubits and 4 digits, and explain it after the former manner.

Also on a level plain at sunrise they regulate the course of ghaṛís by means of the Siktajantra which is an instrument like an hour-glass, measured for 60 ghaṛís. With this they walk eastwards. After 84 yojanas and a fraction, there is a difference of one ghaṛí and the day advanced by that time.⁴ This multiplied by 60 gives the circumference of the Earth.

The Hindu philosophers describe the terraqueous globe as comprising seven insular continents and seven seas, the whole area of land and sea measuring¹ 7,957,750 yojanas.

1. Jambu Dwípa² is an island surrounded by the ocean, and is the habitation of the human race and the greater part of the animal creation. They consider it together with half the ocean, as equal to a half of the whole globe. The breadth of the ocean is 130 yojanas, and the breadth of the island is 1,265 yojanas, of which 65 are water, and the superficial area of this island with the sea is 3,978,875 yojanas, of which 417,360 are water. They say that in the centre of the Earth is a mountain of gold like an axis, and that part of it which with reference to Jambu Dwípa is above the Earth, is called Suméru and is 84,000 yojanas high. They believe that the degrees of paradise are on its summit and around its sides. It is said to be the same depth below the surface, and this is known as Baḍwánal and extraordinary fables are told of it. This is the account of the fanatical traditionists of this people, but the learned among them, like the Greeks, do not admit of a height over 2⅓ farsakh.

2. Sháka-dwípa: half the sea bounds it on one side, and its superficial extent is 427,424 yojanas. Beyond this is a sea of milk, of 801,097 yojanas.

3. Shálmali Dwípa; 320,120 yojanas. Beyond this is a sea of curds, of 633,553 yojanas.

4. Kusha Dwípa: 286,749 yojanas. Beyond this is a sea of butter, of 459,792 yojanas.

5. Krauncha Dwípa: 181,684 yojanas. The sea beyond is the juice of sugarcane, of 250,504 yojanas.

6. Gomedaka Dwípa: 86,580 yojanas. The sea beyond is of wine, of 71,648 yojanas.

7. Pushkara Dwípa: 14,204 yojanas. Beyond is the sea of sweet water, of 28,160 yojanas.

The breadth of each sea is 130 yojanas, and the breadth of each island, 70 yojanas. In these six last Dwípas, are located the degrees of the lower regions. The seven seas measure together 3,079,474 yojanas and the dry land 4,878,278 yojanas.

The habitation of men and animals extends to the 53rd degree of latitude, being 728 yojanas.

The legends regarding the six islands being beyond the limits of credibility, I put them aside and confine myself to a few particulars regarding Jambu.

Dividing the ocean, at each of the four cardinal directions with relation to the equatorial line, stands a city whose fenced walls are of bricks of gold. 1. Yamakóṭi. The earth's longitude is reckoned from this, but in the Greek treatises the Hindu canon is said to be based (as 0° of longitude) on Gangdizh,¹ the Greeks being really unaware from what point their longitude was taken. 2. Lanka.¹ 3. Siddhapúra. 4. Romaka. Each of these is distant 90 degrees from its neighbour and 180° from that which is opposite to it. The mountain Suméru is distant 90° from each. The northern sides of these lie under the equinoctial circle which in Sanskrit is called Vishavad-vṛitta.² This circle passes over the zenith of the inhabitants of these four cities, and the sun twice in the year reaches the zenith, and day and night throughout the year are nearly equal. The greatest altitude of the sun is 90.° His progression is from Lanka to Romaka, from thence to Siddhapúra, continuing to Yamakoṭi and back to Lanka. When the sun is in the meridian of Yamakoṭi, it is sunrise at Lanka, sunset at Siddhapúra, and midnight at Romaka, and when it is midday in Lanka, it rises at Romaka, sets at Yamakoṭi, and is midnight at Siddhapúra. When he is in the meridian of Romaka, it is sunrise at Siddhapúra, sunset at Lanka and midnight at Yamakoṭi. When in the meridian of Siddhapúra, the sun rises at Yamakoṭi, sets at Romaka and it is midnight at Lanka. There is a difference of 15 ghaṛis between each of these four places.

Again, north of Lanka towards Suméru there are said to be three mountains: Himáchala,³ Hemakúṭa and Nishadha. These three mountains in this order stretch across from the shore of the eastern sea to the western quarter. From Siddhapúra to Suméru also are three other ranges. ´Sṛinga-vanta, ´Sukla, and Níla. There is another mountain between Yamakoṭi and Suméru, called Mályavanta adjoining Nishadha and Níla, and another between Romaka and Suméru called Gandhamádana whose extremes meet the same two ranges.

Extraordinary are the legends regarding these mountains which cannot here be particularised, but something shall be set down of the region between Lanka and Himáchala, and a little stand exemplar for much. This intervening country is called Bhárata-khaṇḍa. Bhárata was a mighty sovereign and this tract was named after him. From Lanka to Himáchala which is 52 degrees, the country is inhabited, the settlements being particularly frequent up to the 48th degree, and less so through the remaining four, on account of the extreme cold.

According to their supposition a celestial degree is equal to 14 yojanas on earth; the whole fifty-two degrees therefore are 728 yojanas which they consider to represent the habitable world. Between Himáchala and Hemakúṭa lies Kinnara-khaṇḍa comprising 12 degrees of latitude. Between Hemakúṭa and Nishadha is Harikhaṇḍa comprising the same number of degrees. Between Siddhapúra and ´Sṛinga-vanta is Kuru-khaṇḍa occupying 52 degrees. Between ´Sṛinga-vanta and Shukla lies Hiraṇmaya-khaṇḍ with 12 degrees of latitude, the whole of which is of gold. Between Shukla and Níla is the tract called Ramyaka-khaṇḍa comprising the same number of degrees of latitude, and between Yamakoṭi and Mályavanta is Bhadráśva-khaṇḍa with an extent of 76°. Intermediate between Gandhamádana and Romaka is Ketumála of 76°. Between Mályavanta, Gandhamádana, Nishadha and Níla is Ilávṛita and extends 14° on each quarter.¹ The superficial measurement of these nine divisions is said to be equal, though the breadth of some is less than that of others.

On the four sides of Suméru are four other mountains; that on the side of Yamakoṭi is called Mandara; that towards Lanka, Sugandha Parvata; on the Romaka quarter, Vipula, and towards Siddhapúra, Supárśva. The height of each is 18,000 yojanas.

The nine divisions of Jambu-dwípa having been recorded, I now proceed to relate some particulars of the first division, Bhárata-khaṇḍa. Between Lanka and Himáchala are said to be seven mountain ranges, extending from east to west and smaller than the former ranges. These are, Mahendra, ´Sukti, Malaya, Ṛiksha, Páriyátra, Sahya, Vindhyá.²

The tract between Lanka and Mahendra is called Indra-khaṇḍa; between it and ´Sukti, Kaser; between ´Sukti and Malaya, Támravarṇa; between Malaya and Ṛiksha, Gabhasti-mat; between Ṛiksha and Páriyátra, Nágkhaṇḍa; between Páriyátra and Sahya, Saumyakhaṇḍa. The tract between Sahya and Vindhyá is divided in two parts, the eastern of which is called Kumára-khaṇḍa, and the western Váruṇa-khaṇḍa³.

The upper half of the globe would be represented by the accompanying plate.

The Hindus also divide the world into three regions. The upper is named Swar-loka, where the good receive the reward of their virtuous life. The middle region is Bhúr-loka, which is the abode of mankind. The lower is called Pátál-loka, where the wicked receive the punishment of their evil deeds.

The religious teachers of this creed conceive the world to be a superficies divided into fourteen parts. Seven superior, viz., Bhúr-loka, Swar-loka, Mahar-loka, Jana-loka, Tapo-loka and Satya-loka; and the same number inferior, Atala, Sutala, Vitala, Talátala, Mahátala, Rasátala, and Pátala.¹ They relate extraordinary legends regarding the inhabitants of each region which cannot be inserted in a summary narrative.

This people also speak of seven seas and seven islands (dwípas), and nine divisions of Jambu-dwípa, but there is considerable diversity in their order, extent and other particulars; as for instance, the mountain Suméru is reckoned to be 84,000 yojanas above ground, and 32,000 in breadth and 16,000 below the surface of the earth and the same in breadth. The habitable earth is not confined, they think, only to Bháratakhaṇḍa nor even to Jambu-dwípa. They say that beyond the ocean there is a land of gold² which is the abode of men. Their duration of life extends to a thousand years, neither more nor less. Sickness and grief come not nigh them, neither have they fear nor greed nor ignorance. They follow not evil speaking nor jealousy nor calumny and live in peace, in rectitude and in charity. They lose not the vigour of youth, neither are they invaded by weakness or decrepitude. They are of the same creed and race and have no distinction of food or clothing, and their wishes are gratified without toil. Of the other islands in like manner are wonderful legends told which the ordinary rigid formalist would not admit to a hearing, but do not surprise the adoring believer in Divine Omnipotence.

They also divide Kumárakhaṇḍa into two parts. The country where the black antelope is not found they call Mlechchha-deś,³ and regard it with contempt and unworthy of existence. The region where that animal is indigenous is called Jag-deś, and it is subdivided into four parts. 1 A´ryavarta, bounded on the east and west by the ocean, and north and south by two mountain ranges of Hindustán: 2 Madhya-deś, to the east of which is Illahábás and to the west the river Vinásá, twenty-five kós from Thanesar, and bounded to the north and south by the same ranges. 3 Brahmarikhdeś (Brahmarshi), comprises five places: 1, Thanesar and its dependencies; 2, Bairáth (var. Pairáth); 3, Kampila (var. Kanílah), 4, Mathura; 5, Kanauj. 4 Brahmávarta, the fertile tract between the Sarsuti (Saraswati) and Rákasi (Drishadwati) rivers.

The Hindus term longitude lambana, and make it consist of 180°, after the manner of the Greeks. They reckon its beginning (as 0° of longitude) from Yamakoṭi in the farthest east, apparently because following the movement of night and day, the nearest point to its origin is selected. The Greeks reckon from the Islands of the Blest. There are six¹ islands of the western ocean formerly inhabited, but now submerged beneath the sea. From their delightful climate, their choice production of fruits and flowers and the luxuriance of their vegetation, they were accounted a paradise. Men call them the Eternal Islands () or the Fortunate (). Some assert that the Fortunate Isles are 24 in number between the Eternal Islands and the sea-shore. Of the Greeks, some take the reckoning of longitude from the shore of the western (Atlantic) ocean which they call ,¹ which is 10° east of the Eternal Islands. The distance of the shore from the islands in 222@2/9 farsakh according to the system of the ancients, or 189@8/9 farsakh according to the moderns, the latter being guided to this conclusion by observation of the motion of the Zodiacal signs in succession and the proximity of the place. In the longitudinal reckoning of places both are agreed. The longitude is an arc of the equatorial between its point of upper intersection with the meridian measured from the begining of the habitable earth (the first meridian), and its point of upper intersection with the meridian of the given place, and the interval is the distance between the place and the first meridian at its nearest side.²

To find the longitude; at the first meridian or a place whose longitude is known, observe the exact time of the occultation of light in a lunar eclipse, its duration and initial or total reappearance, and let a similar observation be made at the place whose unknown longitude is required. If the time be the same on both, their longitude will be the same. If the time be later at the place required, the city is more to the eastward.¹ The difference of the times of observation is taken, and an excess in the number of degrees over the place whose longitude is known, is allotted on the calculation of six degrees for every ghaṛí and fifteen degrees for every hour, reckoning 4 minutes to the degree.² If the time be earlier, the city is more westerly and the calculation is the reverse of that for the east. According to the system of the Hindu astronomers who begin their reckoning of longitude from the east, in the first instance, the number of degrees will diminish, and in the second case, increase.

This is called by the Hindus Aksha. It is reckoned from Lanka and carried to the 52nd degree of latitude. All within this region is populous, but less so up to 14° further (north) on account of the severity of the cold. The Greeks reckon their latitude from the equator, and as their circle passes through Lanka, there is no discrepancy and the result is the same. The latitude of a place is an arc extending from the equator between the meridian of the place, and its upper intersection with the equinoctial. In short it is the distance of the meridian of the city from the equinoctial, and that is the degree of the elevation of the pole (above the horizon of the place).

To find the latitude.³ Take the altitude of a (circumpolar) star that is constantly visible, and ascertain its highest and lowest points of ascension Subtract the lesser from the greater and add half the remainder to the lesser, or subtract it from the greater. The result of this process of addition and subtraction gives the latitude of the place. Or

During either equinox, take the altitude of the sun at noon. Subtract this from 90° and the remainder is the latitude of the place. Or

When the sun enters the first of Cancer, take its greatest altitude and subtract its total declination. The remainder will give the co-latitude. Subtract this from 90° and the remainder gives the latitude of the place.

Every place whose longitude is less than 90° is called west longitude, and greater than 90° east longitude. According to the Hindus it is the reverse. Every place whose latitude is less than 33°, is south, and greater than 33°, north latitude.¹

In order to ascertain the (times of) wordly events, at the sun's first entry into Aries, they observe its rising at Lanka, and finding the horoscope, they assemble to determine the calculation and this they call Lankúdaya Lagna.² The oblique ascension is used to determine the relative conditions of any particular place, and is called Nagr-udaya Lagna. The Greeks observe this system, but they have two ascendens or horoscopes, one at the extreme east to ascertain the circumstances of one hemisphere and the second at the cupola of the earth which is the means of discovering the conditions of the other. They consider that as the circle of the meridian cuts the globe of the earth, it appears as a circle on its circumference and intersects the equatorial line. The point of intersection (Lanka) is called the cupola or the centre of the earth. Some suppose the cupola to be in the middle of the , that is at a spot situated in Lon. 90°, Lat. 33°. Others place it in the fourth climate, Lon. 9°, Lat 36°.

A brief description of the cosmogony according to the strange theories of Hindu sages having been given, I here note some particulars of the system of the Greeks to relieve the dryness of this exposition.

There are nine integral¹ heavens. 1. The greatest heaven, called also the crystalline, whose revolution is the cause of night and day. 2. The heaven of the fixed stars. 3. The heaven of Saturn. 4. The heaven of Jupiter. 5. The heaven of Mars. 6. The heaven of the Sun. 7. The heaven of Venus. 8. The heaven of Mercury. 9. The heaven of the Moon. There are besides fifteen minor spheres. Again, the elemental spheres¹ are nine in number.

The first is of Fire: its convex adjoins the concave of the sphere of the moon.

The second, of Air: of this there are four strata, viz., 1. volatilised where the fluid is permeated by vapour, for the ascending vapours do not reach this point but become dissipated. It is here that comets, Zodiacal light,² luminous streams and meteors and the like have their origin. The Hindus regard them all as astral bodies of which they number a thousand kinds, and believe that they are always in existence but only occasionally visible:³ 2. predominant, where the shooting stars are observed: 3. boreal, which is a vaporous wind and extremely cold in which clouds, lightning, thunder and thunderbolts take their rise: 4. dense, and this adjoins the spheres of Water and Earth.

The third, of Water: this surrounds the earth and from the effect of light and contact with earth, does not retain its original purity and thus waters varying in sweet, saline, clear, and turbid qualities spring from the soil and are diverse in their scantiness, excess, limpidity and density.

The fourth, Earth: this according to their notions lies in three strata () that which by the bounty of the Creator came forth from the waters and subjected to heat became dry land, wherein is the region of mountain and mine and the habitat of the greater number of animals; () clay, which is earth mixed with water; () earth simple, and this is about the centre of the globe.

Some writers blindly following traditional lore hold that the Earth like the heavens consists of seven vaults, and another school believes that the heavens overshadow them all, and that each earth is surrounded by a mountain, as the mountain of Ḳáf¹ surrounds this habitable world. They also assert that the earths are of gold, and ruby and the like. Some pretend that beyond Ḳáf there are seventy regions of gold, followed by as many of musk and imagine similar extraordinary strata. Though fable may create a hundred other such fancies, no proof can substantiate them.

The equinoctial is a great circle, the two poles whereof are the two poles of the earth. The one which is in the direction of Ursa Minor called also Banát u'n Naạsh, is the north pole. The constellation of the Kid² is adjacent to it. The other is the south pole.³ When the sun passes over this circle, night and day are of equal length in all places, either actually or approximately, and this occurs in the first of Aries and Libra. From this imaginary circle being drawn upon the concave surface of the magnus orbis, a great circle is delineated upon the earth which divides it into two-halves north and south, the periphery being called the equatorial line where night and day are always equal.

The horizon is of two kinds, the real and the sensible, and the latter is to be understood in two ways. The first is a circle parallel to the real horizon and contiguous to the surface of the earth. The second is a circle which divides the visible portion of the sphere from the invisible, and this horizon is also called the visible, the radial and the horizon of vision. The zenith and nadir are its two poles, which vary with the spectator and his position. The real horizon is a great circle, having the same two poles, and the distance of the first sensible horizon from the real, is half the earth's diameter, and by this the real horizon is obtained.¹ And as the equatorîal line divides the earth into two halves, the northern and the southern, the circle of the real horizon divides those two halves again into two, an upper and a lower. Thus by these two circles, the earth is apportioned into four quarters, an upper and lower northern, and similar southern divisions. The Greeks supposed the northern quarter only to be above water, but they have determined this by no proof. Its creation was assigned to the power of the Sun, in order that animal life to which breathing is a necessity, might secure the capacity to exist and the wondrous power of human speech become manifest. Through the force of the celestial light and the accretional properties of matter in the upper regions, and by the action of the winds and the commotion of the seas, lofty mountains and marvellous configurations of hills and profound abysses were produced. And because the tendency of water is to flow downwards and the earth thereby becomes viscous, the fermentation of heat and the disintegrating process of time caused the rise of mountainous ranges.

When the sun culminates in the northern signs of the ecliptic from Aries to Virgo, its lowest declination from the equator will necessarily occur in the southern signs. From Libra to Pisces are the signs culminating in the winter solstice. At this time¹ the sun is nearest the sphere of the earth and the warmth is excessive, the heat absorbing moisture as may be witnessed by experiment with a lamp. The solstice continues in the same sign during 2,100 years and the entire revolution is made in 25,200 years, one-half of this period being occupied in the northern and the other in the southern signs.¹ It is now in the 3rd degree of Cancer and the opposite solstitial point is in the same degree of Capricorn. It is this ecliptic movement that has caused the northern quarter of the globe to become terra firma. Its superficial area, according to the ancients, is 5,090,000 and according to the moderns 3,678,233½ farsakh. The rule to find this is to multiply the diameter by ¼ of the circumference and the product will be the measurement of the quarter of the globe,² or divide the superficial area of the whole globe by 4 and the quotient gives the area of the quarter. There is a difference of opinion as to whether the quarter of the globe was created terra firma or became so at a later period. The majority incline to the latter belief from the consideration of the proximity of the solstitial points. They affirm that the whole of the fourth part of the globe was terra firma, but that now a great part of it is submerged such as the Eternal Islands, Greece and other places.

The is declared not to extend in latitude beyond the complement of the greatest declination of the Sun from the equator³ which is 66° 29' 43," as animal life could not exist beyond this point from the severity of the cold. The superficial area of the is taken by the ancients from the equatorial line to a place whose latitude is equal to the complement of the sun's greatest declination from the equator. According to the Gúrgáni Canon, the superficial area is 4,668,502@7/60 farsakh and according to the moderns 3,370,992¾ farsakh. Some say that a portion of the upper southern quarter adjoining the northern quarter is terra firma but not inhabited. Others affirm that it is inhabited as far as 10° south. Ptolemy¹ in his Geography allows 16° 25' and near the Zanj and Abyssinian, further still. A few even suppose that the other three-fourths of the globe are also above water and inhabited.

Ancient traditions relate that Alexander after his conquest of the northern quarter of the globe, desiring to obtain some information of the remaining quarters and of the seas thereof, named several bold and scientific explorers for this duty, and supplying them, confident in their providential mission in the pursuit of knowledge, with six months' provisions, embarked them in a sea-going vessel. After sailing day and night, through the period mentioned, they fell in with some vessels, but from diversity of tongues they were unable to understand each others' intentions. A fight ensued and Alexander's party was victorious. With some of the captives they intermarried. The children of these marriages spoke the languages of both their parents and from these nurslings of life it was discovered that a certain prince had despatched this band also with the same object, and after a three months' continuous sail the encounter had taken place. But this account is disputed.² In other ancient writings it is related that Alexander sent out a party of scientific men thorougly proficient in the knowledge of various languages, on an expedition by sea with provisions for three years. They were instructed to sail eastwards for a period of a year and a half towards the rising places of the stars, and then to return and relate their experiences. This party after sailing the appointed time reached a flourishing coast and they learnt that they had penetrated to the country of Bactria. Alexander for a time appointed some of his ministers to the government of this province.

At the present day, those of more exact information declare that the south is inhabited in the same way as the north. Of late years the Europeans have discovered an extensive and populous insular continent which they have called the New World. Some shattered vessels had been here driven ashore. A man mounted on horseback was seen by the inhabitants. Mistaking the man and his horse for a single animal they were overcome by fear and the country fell an easy capture.

The learned have divided the into seven parts, to each of which they have given the name of .¹ Some reckon from the equator as Ptolemy shows in his Almagest.² Another school omitting 12° 45' north of the equator, divide the remainder and terminate as is known at the 50° 31° parallel of latitude.³ In the former case, therefore, the parallels from the equator will be seven circles and in the latter, eight. The seven belts which these lines form are called climates. A climate therefore is a belt on the surface of the earth between two semi-circles parallel with each other and with the equator. A climate increases in length as it approaches the equator; moreover its first parallel will be longer than its second. It is demonstrable from (experiment with) spheres that every parallel circle increases as it nears the equatorial line. The length of the first parallel of the first climate is said to be 11,856 miles approximately, and the length of its second parallel 11,230, while the length of the last parallel of the seventh climate is 1,627 farsakh. But every climate, like the longitudinal extension of the earth from west to east, is divided into an equal number of degrees of longitude, and not more or less in proportion to its length. The latitude of each belt varies.

There are two reasons given for the selection of seven as this number. The first is that ancient sages have verified by experience that each tract of superficial area was specially connected with one of the planets, as for instance, the first climate with Saturn. For this reason the inhabitants of that zone generally are dark-skinned, curly-haired, long-lived and indolent in action. The second climate, according to the Persians, had an affinity with Jupiter, but according to the Romans, with the Sun. The third climate, in the opinion of the former, with Mars, in that of the latter, with Mercury. The fourth, with the Sun, as the first mentioned suppose, but with Jupiter according to the second opinion. Both concur in ascribing the fifth to Venus. The sixth is allotted by the first to Mercury, by the second to the Moon. The seventh, the former connect with the Moon, the latter with Mars. The second opinion is that in former ages a single monarch ruled the whole habitable earth. With far-seeing and prudent policy he divided it severally among his seven sons.

The word climate may be taken in two senses,¹ viz., the ordinary sense in which men commonly speak of a tract of country as a climate, such as Rome, Turán, Irán and Hindustán; and the true signification already explained. In the latter meaning India is an aggregate of the first, second, third and fourth climates.

The beginning of the first climate is defined by general opinion to be north of the equator. Its latitude according to accurate information is 12° 42' 2" 39'". Its longest day is 12 hours and 45 minutes. Its centre has a location according to concurrent testimony, where its longest day is 13 hours. Its latitude is 16° 37' 30". Twenty large mountains and thirty considerable rivers are comprised in it, and its population are generally black in colour.

The beginning of the second climate has a latitude of 20° 31' 17" 58'". Its longest day consists of 13 hours, fifteen minutes. The longest day at its centre is 13 hours, 30 minutes. Its latitude is 24° 40'. It includes 27 mountains and 27 rivers. The colour of the inhabitants of this zone is between black and wheat colour.

The beginning of the third climate has a latitude of 27° 34' 3" 33'". Its longest day is 13 hours, 45 minutes. Its day at the centre is of 14 hours and the latitude 30° 40'. It comprises 33 mountains and 22 rivers, and its inhabitants are generally of a wheat colour.

The beginning of the fourth climate has a latitude of 33° 43' 17" 36'". Its longest day, 14 hours, 15 minutes. At the centre the longest day is of 14 hours, 30 minutes. Lat. 36° 22'. It includes 25 mountains and 22 rivers; the colour of its inhabitants is between wheat colour and a fair skin.

The beginning of the fifth climate is in Lat. 39° 0' 19" 5'". Longest day, 14 hours, 45 minutes. Longest day at centre, 15 hours. Lat. 41° 15'. Colour of inhabitants fair. Has 30 mountains and 15 rivers.

The beginning of the sixth climate is in Lat. 43° 29' 58" 8'". Longest day, 15 hours, 15 minutes. Longest day at centre, 15 hours, 30 minutes. Lat. 45° 21'. Has 11 mountains 40 rivers. Colour of inhabitants fair inclining to tawny and with tawny hair.

The beginning of the seventh climate is in Lat. 47° 58' 59" 17'". Longest day, 15 hours, 45 minutes. Longest day at centre, 16 hours. Lat. 48° 52'. Its mountains and rivers as in the sixth climate. Colour of inhabitants ruddy and white. Its extreme parallel according to general opinion is in Lat. 50° 31' 31" 54'". The longest day 16 hours, 15 minutes.

The differences in latitude of these climates are determined by the increase of half an hour in the length of the longest day. From the last parallel to the furthest inhabited point is not included in a climate on account of the paucity of its inhabitants. Some suppose the northernmost parallel of the seventh climate to be the extreme of the habitable world. According to others, the parallel of 50° 20' is inhabited, but they do not include it in this climate; and there is an island called Thule in Lat. 63°. From the severity of the cold the inhabitants pass their days in heated chambers. In Lat. 63° 30' is habitable land the dwellers wherein are Scythians as recorded by Ptolemy. In Lat. 66° a tract has been discovered the inhabitants of which resemble wild animals, as mentioned by him in the Geographia. The remaining portion of the quarter of the globe is according to some, a tenantless waste, while others regard it as simply unknown country. In Lat. 54° and a fraction, the longest day is 17 hours; in Lat. 58°, 18 hours; in Lat. 61°, 19 hours; in Lat. 63°, 20 hours; in Lat. 64° 30', 21 hours; in Lat. 65° and a fraction, 22 hours; and in 66° 23 hours, and in the latitude, equal to the complement of the sun's greatest declination from the ??uator, 24 hours. In Lat. 67° the day increases by one month, in Lat. 70°, 1¾ months; in Lat. 73° 30', three months; in Lat. 78° 30', four months; in Lat. 84°, five months, and in the Lat. 90° which is the extremity of the earth, the day is said to be of six months, and the other six months is night. But it is more correct to say that a year is one nycthemeron. If the day be reckoned from sunrise to sunset, the day there would be seven nycthemera longer than the nights, but if it be calculated from the dawn of light and the disappearance of the fixed stars, to the occultation of light and the reappearance of the stars, the day there would be seven months and seven days and the remainder (of the year) night. Again if the day be counted from the dawn of morning to the evanescence of twilight, this day would be of nine months and seventeen days and the complement of the year would be the night.¹

To lend an interest to this work a table of the various climates with other details is here introduced.

Tables for the ascertainment of the Longitudes and Latitudes of places of the inhabited quarter of the globe from the Latitude of the Equator, according to the learned, especially of places beyond the limits of the seven climates to the 60th degree of Latitude.