The three kinds of Minerals. The seven Metals. Mines of Gold, Silver, Iron, Lead, Zinc, Tin and Copper. The three kinds of Gem-stones. Pre- cious Stones: Diamond, Garnet, Plasma, Emerald, Carnelian, Turquoise, Ruby, Sapphire and Jasper. Stones of lesser value: Coral, Rock-crystal and Agate. Common Stones: Tutty, Copperas, Glass, Alum, Kuḥl (Antimony), Litharge, Marcasite, Sal-Ammoniac and Lapis-Lazuli. The Mineral Un- guents: Pitch, Quicksilver, Ambergris, Asphalt, Sulphur, Bitumen and Naphtha
SECTION 3. Giving an account of where Minerals are found.
In the First Part of this work1 an explanation of the origin of the (three) natural kingdoms (of animals, vegetables and minerals) has been given, and it was then set forth how minerals formed three species, namely, Metals, Stones and Mineral Un- guents. Further, and when enumerating these, the manner of their formation was explained, and now it remains to name the mines in every province, where many of these minerals are found; and this will be accomplished in three sub-sections.
SUB-SECTION I. Describing the seven kinds of Metals.
Gold. There are many mines of this metal, which for the
most part lie in the hot regions, but the best, for the excellence
of the ore, and the quantity of the output, are those of Maghrib.
It is for this reason that Maghrib-gold is now famous; and many
say that from all times in Maghrib people who were acquainted
with the art of Alchemy have made gold, for which cause it is
that gold there is very abundant. Then the mines of Andalusia
too are excellent, and very profitable. The mine at Al-Bajjah
in Abyssinia gives excellent output; also those in the desert lying
between Egypt, Nubia, Abyssinia and the Red Sea give good
profit. The mine in Sicily is known as the Gold Mountain. The
mine in the Wāqwāq Isles (Japan) gives immense returns, so
much so that most of the government edicts of that people are
inscribed on gold. There are also gold-mines in the desert of
Khutlān, which is on the borders of Turkistān: further other
mines here in the Rāng Mountains; and in the Ṣuwar-al-Aqālīm
it is said that, in these mines, large and small ingots lie about
the surface of the ground; but it is a notable fact that if the large
ingots are carried off then a death occurs among the people here.
Again there is a mine between Bukhārā and Ushrūsanah; also
one in the mountain near Samarqand, which is easily worked,
and which is of great richness. Then there is a mine near Sijil-
māsah (in Maghrib) which gives a great output, but the road
thither is difficult, and the mine is troublesome to work. There
is a mine in the mountains of the Īlāq district in Turkistān, and
another in Farghānah. In the neighbourhood of Dāmghān is a
mine in what is called the Gold Mountain, and ingots of gold are
found here in the soil. This soil they wash in order to separate
out the gold; and in all Īrān, at the present day, there is no other
gold-mine beside this one. In Sīstān is a mine that is, in the
common mouth, much celebrated, because in the times of the
Sultans of Ghaznah, what resembled a needle in gold was dis-
covered here on the ground. As they dug lower, [
Silver. Of silver-mines there are many, mostly in cold countries, and the best, by reason of the purity of the ore, and the abundant output, are those in the Frank countries, which lands have ever been famous for their silver-mines. But there are silver-mines in Khutlān on the Turkistān border; also the mine in the Samarqand mountain, which is easily worked, and gives good returns. In the mountains of Jīruft in Kirmān there is a mine, and one in the Dihistān hills, this last being called Silver-hill; and there are others in the Īlāq province of Turkistān, and in the Rāng Mountains also of Turkistān, and in this latter mine there is the same peculiarity already noted in the gold-mine there (noticed above), namely that the larger ingots must not be carried away (or a death occurs). Then there is a mine in the Farghānah province, another in Bukhārā of Transoxiana, another in Shāsh (Tāshkand) of the same. Further, in Andalusia are silver- mines, and one at Sīmkūh (Silver-hill) lying between Fārs and Jawāshīr (Kirmān city). Also one at Lūlū in Asia Minor, than which in all Persia there is no mine richer in its output. In the mine of Ṭabarak near Ray, whatsoever amount be spent thereon, that sum only does it give back in metal: hence for the most part it is left unworked. In the times of the Saljūqs, however, it was continuously worked, for they said: ‘Although it give no tangible increase, yet since silver is the chief revenue in the world, even this increase of metal is to the good.’
Iron. Of this metal there are many mines, and in the king-
dom of Bāmiyān is a district called the Iron Foundry (Āhan Kār).
In Arabia is Mount Qusās, where there is a mine producing ex-
cellent iron, from which steel is made, hence the Qusāsī swords
are famous and much to be relied on. There is also a mine in
the Khwāf district of Quhistān, and another in the Qārin Moun-
tain of Kirmān. From the mine near Ṣāhah (or Ṣāhik) in Fārs
excellent steel is got; also from the Quṭruh mine in the same
province. Further there is the Kūrah mine in the district of the
Two Ṭārums [
Lead. Of this metal many mines exist, and the most famous are those of Mount Damāvand. Then there is the mine near Bukhārā, also one in the Ushrūsanah province, and that in the Farghānah mountains.
Zinc. This metal is not found in Īrān, and philosophers have said regarding it, that it might be taken as a comparison for non-existence. In certain books, however, I find it stated that mines of it exist in China, where they make of this metal arms for war, and it gives an edge that is harder than iron.
Tin. Of this there are numerous mines, but the most famous and the most productive are the mines at Qal`ah, on the Indian frontier of China, and it is for that reason it is known (in Arabic) as Qala`ī. According to another account there is a mountain in Andalusia called Qal`ah, where there is a mine producing also lead (Arzīz), and it is from this mountain that the tin takes its name1. There is also a mine at Mān-Rūd of Lesser Lur, where pieces of tin are found weighing each two Mithqāls, each like an acorn with a hole through in the middle. Then there are the tin-mines of the Islands of Kallah and Sarbuzah in the Indian Sea, and there are mines in the Frank Country.
Copper. Of this metal there are many mines, and the most famous for their output are those in the provinces of Gīlān and Ādharbāyjān. Then there are the mines in the mountains near Bukhārā, and in Ushrūsanah, also in the province of Farghānah. There is a mine in the Mountain of Jawshan, lying to the west- ward of Aleppo in Syria, and Qazvīnī2 reports that originally this gave an enormous output, but that the mine lost all prosperity from the time when the family of the Commander of the Faithful, Ḥusayn, the son of `Alī—upon whom be peace—were brought past this place as prisoners (after the massacre at Karbalā); for the people here had mocked them in their misfortunes, though the women of Ḥusayn’s family were perishing from the oppres- sive heat, and the children were falling down exhausted. And to the present day, no matter what is spent upon working this mine, it gives but a poor return. Lastly, there is the mine on Mount Sablān in Ādharbāyjān, which produces excellently pure copper.
SUB-SECTION II. Describing Stones.
There are many kinds of gem-stones, and we shall describe those that are most famous and of greatest price in three cate- gories, namely those that are precious stones, then those that are of lesser value, and finally common stones.
Of precious stones there are nine kinds.
Diamond. In the first part of this work it has been described
how these stones are found in the valleys of the Ceylon moun-
tains, [
Garnet. The best and most famous mines of this stone are in the Frank Country, and these too are in the westernmost parts of that land.
Plasma. The Plasma of the Franks is famous, and in the Īl-Khānid Tansukh Nāmah it is stated that there is in Turkistān a city that was founded by Afrāsiyāb, where there is a Plasma mine, and the colour of the stone is like the corundum. Further, at Dizmār in Ādharbāyjān there is a mine of Plasma, where water, exuding from the stone, congeals after the fashion of ice and petrifies.
Emerald. In the Ṣuwar-al-Aqālīm it is reported that there is one mine of emeralds only, namely in Mount Muqaṭṭam, in the Ṣa`īd province of Upper Egypt, (the same mountain also which in the northern part of the range near Cairo) overhangs Qarāfah. In the whole world there is no other emerald mine but this.
Carnelian. There is of this stone an excellent mine in Yaman, and the Yaman Carnelian is famous. This mine is known by the name of Qusās1.
Turquoise. There are many mines of this stone, but the best mine is that of Nīshāpūr, by reason of the good quality of the stones and the little labour of getting them. In the mountains of Nīshāpūr there are pits dug where the Turquoises are found, and thence come the best stones. These Nīshāpūr Turquoises were famous; but of late years scorpions have come to be found in these pits, and in fear of them the people have ceased to work the mines. There are also the Ṭūs mines, but these give fewer Turquoises than those of Nīshāpūr. Then there are mines in the mountains lying between Bukhārā and Ushrūsanah, also mines in Farghānah, and in Kirmān, but in this last-named province the Turquoises are immature and unformed, and hence fetch but a low price.
Ruby. In the early times no Rubies were found, hence it is that in histories so little mention is made of this stone; but of later years they have been discovered in the Badakhshān Moun- tains, where there are excellent mines. Also on the high-road into Ādharbāyjān there is a mine, but the Rubies from here are immature, being of a dark colour and tinged with blue; and hence these fetch no great price.
Sapphire. The Sapphire mines lie near the equator, for there the power of the heat is greatest, and the Sapphire is only able to get to its maturity after the lapse of time under a power- ful heat.
Jasper. This stone is of diverse sorts. One kind is like
Copperas, and the jewellers know it as Crystal-copperas. The
best Jasper is that which is perfectly [
Stones of lesser value.
Coral and the Coral stone. In the Ṣuwar-al-Aqālīm there is said to be a mine of this stone in Andalusia, and except for this one there is no other in the rest of the whole world.
Rock-crystal. This is found in India, in the mountains of the province of Kashmīr. It is also found in the hills of the Frank countries, but though in the Frank country it is found in greater abundance, the best is the Indian Rock-crystal. In the crystal mine it is impossible to work by day, for the effect of the sun’s rays is to make it like a burning-glass, so that it burns the clothes of the workmen.
Agate. Mines of this stone exist in Yaman, and in some other places; but there is none that is harder than that coming from Yaman.
The Bezoar Stone and Amber are of the value of Carnelian, and they are of diverse sorts.
Common Stones. These are of all kinds, and in the first part of this book they have been already described; hence we shall only need to mention here the mines of those sorts which are of some more particular value.
Tutty. There are many mines of this, and in Īrān, in a village near Kirmān called Dih Tūtiyā Garān, Tutty is got from the mine as a heavy ore, which being moistened is made up into the form of bars, each an ell in length. When dry these are put in a furnace, and the action of fire extracts the Tutty, which remains in the shape of the bars, and like sword sheaths, which are then taken out.
Copperas. There are numerous mines of this, but those in the Kingdom of Īrān only need here be mentioned. There is a mine in the Huwayn Mountain in Little Lur, where a mineral spring produces Copperas of diverse kinds. Then there is a mine in Mount Damāvand, and another in the Two Ṭārum districts of Qazvīn.
Glass. Its source is the stone for striking fire (flint), and this is found in all countries. Whether it be opaque or clear depends on the art of him who makes it; and the best glass founders are those of Aleppo. The glass bottles from here are perfectly trans- parent and very famous.
Alum. That from Yaman is well known. In this province there is a hill where there is a spring; and the water from this, when it has passed out and run some distance, petrifies. From here the white Yamanī Alum comes, and there is also black Alum.
Kuḥl. (Antimony for the eyes.) There are many mines for collyrium. One mine is in the mountains of Iṣfahān, and this gives excellent collyrium. Another mine is in Mount Damāvand: likewise there is a mine in Andalusia, and the peculiarity of this mine is that the works give the greatest output in the quarter when the moon is waxing to her full.
Litharge. There are many special mines [
Marcasite. There is a mine of this stone in Mount Huwayn in Little Lur, and this gives the Marcasite spotted with gold, from which when melted the gold remains as an ingot.
Sal-Ammoniac. There are many mines of this, and in Īrān there is one in the mountains of the Nīmrūz province. There by day you will see smoke, and by night a flame of fire, which comes forth from the mines; and when the men go up thither they clothe themselves in wet felts, for otherwise they would get burnt. The mine here named is the best for output of any known, but there is another mine in Transoxiana, and another at Uzkand.
Lapis-Lazuli. The best mines of this stone are in Badakh- shān, but there are mines also in Māzandarān, and others at Dizmār in Ādharbāyjān, and there is also one in Kirmān1.
SUB-SECTION III. Describing the Mineral Unguents.
Pitch. There are numerous mines for this, and according to the Ṣuwar-al-Aqālīm the best of all is that lying between Bukhārā and Ushrūsanah; there is also a mine in Farghānah.
Quicksilver. In the Ṣuwar-al-Aqālīm it is stated that the best Quicksilver mines are at Barānis in Andalusia; and there is here a spring where Quicksilver and water ooze out together. It is exported thence to all lands. There is also a mine between Bukhārā and Ushrūsanah, and another mine in the Farghānah province.
Ambergris. There is much difference of opinion as to its origin, and this point has been discussed in the first part of this book: all accounts agree, however, in stating that Ambergris is from the sea, and that it is not found in Īrān.
Asphalt (Qīr). There are many springs of this. Among those in Īrān is that known as `Ayn-al-Qayyārah in the Mosul district, which gives its name to the neighbouring village. It has a large output. There is also a spring between Bukhārā and Ushrūsanah.
Sulphur. This is of diverse colours, and there are many
mines of it. Among those in Īrān is that on Mount Damāvand.
On the summit of this mountain they have dug pits to the
number of seventy, from which they get the brimstone. One,
the largest of these pits, it is impossible to get near to, by reason
of the Sulphur vapour that gathers here, which same will cause
anyone to faint. The common people say that (the two fallen
Angels) Hārūt and Mārūt are imprisoned in this pit, and that the
brimstone here found is formed from their breath, [
Bitumen (Mūmiyā). There are many springs of this, and of those in Īrān there is the well at the Āyī village in Shabānkārah. Here there is a hill, and drops exude from its side, which harden so as to form what is like wax (mūm): this they call Āyī-wax (Mum-i-Āyī) from which the name Mūmiyā has come, and this is the proper name of the substance. There is also a spring of this at Dih Ṣāhik in the district of Arrajān in the Fārs province, and another near Mosul.
Naphtha. There are many springs of this, but the most abundant in the Kingdom of Īrān is that at Bākū. Here over a tract of land they have dug wells to get down to the Naphtha source, and the water which rises in these wells carries the Naphtha on its surface. There is also a spring in the Mosul district, and another in the country between Bayāt and Banda- nījīn. In other countries too there are springs; as that lying between Bukhārā and Ushrūsanah, also the spring in Mount Asīrah in the province of Farghānah.
The formation of rain, hail and snow. Formation of springs, and rivers, which flow into seas. Greater Rivers. Sayḥān and Jayḥān. The Euphrates. The Nile. The Itil (Volga). Aras (Araxes). Būy (Zarafshān). Baradān (Cyd- nus). Jayḥūn (Oxus). Jurjān river. Dijlah (Tigris). Dujayl (Kārūn). Dizfūl river. The Murghāb or Razīq. Zindah Rūd of Iṣfahān. Zakān river. The Safīd Rūd. Sayḥūn (Jaxartes). The Shāhrūd. `Āṣī (Orontes). Farah river. Qārā Murān. Karkhah. River Kur (Cyrus) of Arrān: and of Fārs. Ganges and Indus. Nahrawān. The Herāt river. The Hirmand
SECTION 4. Describing Rivers and their Origin, also how Springs and Rivers are formed.
In the First Part of this work it has been explained how the vapours are drawn up from off the mountains, and how they rise by the power of heat, for the power thereof is by its nature irresistible. Then by the weight of the watery particles the vapour next descends, and if the air be temperate this will reach the ground in the form of rain, but if the air be cold then these vapours will coalesce together, and the drops that are formed will congeal, and hail will ensure. Further again if the air be very cold, and no occasion be given that the falling drops should coalesce, then each in its minuteness freezes on itself, and thus snow is formed.
Now when the rain has fallen on the ground, and penetrated
through its interstices, and the nature of the dry soil prevents its
escape, then it will collect in the bowels of the earth, and as soon
as much is collected will begin to force a way upwards. Where
the ground is very hard it will be unable to make a passage for
its exit, and then will turn sideways; but where it finds the ground
soft it will break forth and form a spring. [
The water of rivers that has collected together in a hollow place is called a Sea (Daryā), and the same word is used to describe any great stream or stagnant body of water that it is impossible to ford, and that forces a man to swim (who would cross it). The vapours therefore, even as the water in the revolution of a water- wheel, continually are drawn up and ascend into the sky, whence they descend again in the form of rain to flow over the surface of the ground. That part which sinks into the bowels of the earth, and there collects its waters, reappears in the form of springs, which, flowing to form rivers, are finally gathered together in the great seas, and also, but to a less degree, in lakes. This, therefore, is the visible and patent way in which rivers, taking their rise from springs in the mountains, run their courses to the seas and the lakes and the swamps: and praise be to Him who suffereth no one, unless He so will it, to comprehend these minute matters in that which He hath ordained and created. Lastly as to those vapours which have not the power to be drawn up by reason of their more exiguous condition, these of necessity must sink below the surface of the ground before they can, by condensing, form the sources of water-channels and wells.
Qazvīnī states that there are in the habitable world 240 and odd great rivers, the least length of any one of which is 50 leagues, while the longest thereof reaches a length of 1000 leagues. In two sub-sections following a brief description will be given of the diverse rivers and springs and streams which are found in the kingdom of Īrān; and also of those in the neighbouring lands which are celebrated throughout Īrān: and this description we have divided into two parts, namely that of the Greater and that of the Lesser Rivers.
The Great Rivers. Of the larger streams which flow through
Īrān, and through the neighbouring lands being held famous
throughout this kingdom, there are in all thirty-five rivers. Now
some of these, it is true, do not traverse the country of Īrān, or
even its neighbouring lands—and the chief object of this work is
indeed limited to setting forth matters pertaining especially to
Īrān. But according to Qazvīnī mention occurs of some of these
rivers in the Traditions of the Prophets—upon whom be peace—
as for example where he said The Sayḥān and the Jayḥān, the
Euphrates [
Sayḥān and Jayḥān (Sarus and Pyramus). These are two rivers of Asia Minor. In the Ṣuwar-al-Aqālīm, and by Ibn Khurdādbih, it is reported that the Sayḥān rises in those far lands, and passing many provinces where other streams join it, it finally flows out to the Mediterranean. The Jayḥān rises above Maṣṣīṣah, and flowing through the Constantinople province and other districts of Asia Minor, joins the Bustān (Albistān) stream, and then passes the Valley of Wind1, whence it falls out to the Mediterranean Sea. The learned for the most part agree that these are the two rivers which are alluded to in the Tradition aforesaid of the Prophet—on whom be peace—but some assert contrariwise that the Tradition refers to the Sayḥūn and Jayḥūn (the Jaxartes and Oxus). The first attribution, however, is the more reliable, by reason of the greater appropriateness (in situation of the Sayḥān and Jayḥān): but God alone knows the real truth.
Furāt (the Euphrates). This river is most celebrated, and
the Persians pronounce the name Fālād. It is called Furāt by
reason of the excellence and wholesomeness of its water, for
every stream whose water is limpid and sweet and wholesome
they call Furāt: as is said in the Qurān (ch. XXXV. v. 13) The
one (stream) fresh, sweet (furāt) pleasant for drink, and the other
(stream is) salt and bitter. This river passes along the western
boundary of Īrān, flowing from north to south. It takes its rise
in the mountains of Armenia, and of Qālīqalā, and of Arzan-ar-
Rūm. At its source there is a great pool that measures 250 ells
in circuit, and so great is the stream of water flowing out of this
that a horse can hardly ford it. Below various other springs
and streams join it, and it becomes a mighty river. It traverses
the province of Rūm (Asia Minor), and flowing at the distance
of a league by Arzanjān passes out of the province of Rūm in the
neighbourhood of Malaṭiyah and comes to Sumaysāṭ (on the
borders of) Syria. In this quarter it is joined by the streams
from Sanjah, Kaysūm, Di`ān2
and other such places, and flowing
on passes Raqqah, Raḥbah, Ānah, and Hīt. Then in the Sawād
district, which at the present day is known as the Ghāzānī domain,
[
There are many Traditions and Sayings (of the Prophet) in its honour. Thus Yāqūt reports on the authority of `Abd-al- Malik ibn `Umayr that the Prophet—upon whom be peace— said; Verily the Euphrates is one of the rivers of Paradise; and were it not for the pollution which contaminates it, no sick man would physic himself therewith, but God would give him healing: verily too there is here an angel by whom all sickness is banished. Also, according to Qazvīnī, it is reported that the Caliph `Alī said, O people of Kūfah, verily into this your river there flow two Canals from Paradise. And from the Imām Ja`far-aṣ-Ṣādiq it is related that he drank of the water of the Euphrates, and twice or thrice he drank again, praising and belauding the same, and said, How great is the blessing thereof; did but the people know what a blessing there is in its waters, they would build on its banks two cupolas, and but for the sinners who enter the same, he who bathed there, being sick, would of a certainty become healed1.
The Nile. Its waters are wholesome and sweet, to the extent
that to strangers it seems as though they had been artificially
sweetened. Ibn Khurdādbih states that the Nile rises in the
Mountains of the Moon, on the further side of the equator. It
flows from south to north, and when it reaches this side of the
equator, its streams come together to form two Lakes. Leaving
these Lakes it passes beside the deserts of the Zanj, and of
Abyssinia, and of Nubia, till it reaches the kingdom of Egypt,
and here it is greater in size than the Shaṭṭ-al-`Arab (Euphrates
and Tigris Estuary). Then it divides into seven channels: the
first is that going to Alexandria, the next to Damietta, the
third by Memphis, the fourth is that of Fusṭāṭ and the Fayyūm
district, which same is that of the city of Cairo, the fifth goes by
`Arīsh, the sixth by Sardūs, and the seventh is that of Manhā.
Throughout the whole [
The Itil (Volga). The head streams of this river take their rise in the mountains of the Ās and Rūs (Ossetes and Russians), and in Bulghār, and in the Qīrghīz lands, and in Salangā and Kaymāk. After watering all these lands the streams come together to form one great river, so great indeed that it is said that no river is greater than this. Then some seventy and more channels branch from it, one of which is so broad that a horse cannot easily ford it, and many populous countries and plains lie on its banks. Of these diverse channels some flow out to the Sea of Ghālāṭīqūn, which same is also known as the Sea of Varāng2, and some flow to the Eastern Sea; but the main stream of the Volga pours into the Khazar (or Caspian) Sea. By reason of the exceeding strength and volume of its current, this may be perceived for more than ten leagues out in the Caspian, by the colour and movement of the water. The length of this river is 300 leagues.
River Atrak. This river rises in Khurāsān, in the mountains of Abīvard and Nisā. Passing Khabūshān, it comes to the Dihistān frontier, and then falls into the Caspian. Its length is 120 leagues: it is a very deep river and hardly anywhere is it possible to ford it. On its banks, for the most part, (the traveller) is never free from fear of highwaymen.
Aras River (Araxes). This flows from south to north, and takes its rise in the mountains of Qālīqalā and Arzan-ar-Rūm (Erzerum). It passes by the provinces of Armenia, Ādharbāyjān and Arrān. Then it joins the waters of the Kur (Cyrus river), and the Qarā Sū, and finally in the Gushtāsfī country flows out into the Caspian. In all those countries which lie along its banks there is found much cultivation, and the length of its course is 150 leagues. Qazvīnī states that whosoever passes across this river in such a manner that only the lower half of his body be wetted by the water, if he then place his foot on the back of a woman who is in labour of child-bearing, then her bringing forth will become easy. And in certain other books it is said that anyone who suffers from the disease of the Rishtah (guinea-worm), and passes through this river, no sooner has his foot touched its waters than, by God’s command, his complaint will leave him.
Īlāq River. This is of Turkistān, and in the Karshāsf Nāmah
it is said that it extends far back into China. [
River Būy (Zarafshān). In the Ṣuwar-al-Aqālīm it is said that this rises in the Buttam mountains, and in Ṣaghāniyān. It there forms a Lake, and after passing out of this many fine water channels are taken from it, such as the canals of Barash, Bārmash, Bashmīn, Qayy and Būzmājin. Numerous well-cultivated districts occur along these canals, and every one of these channels is so broad that it cannot easily be forded. The main stream of the river then passes down through the province of Sughd, going by Samarqand and Bukhārā: and the fertility of those districts depends on that river. Its stagnant waters drain off towards Nasaf: and finally in the Bukhārā district, it joins the Oxus, by which its waters ultimately reach the Caspian. The length of this river is not known.
Baradān River (Cydnus). This rises in Asia Minor, and flows out to the Mediterranean Sea.
Tājah (Tagus). In the Ṣuwar-al-Aqālīm it is said that the Tagus is the river which takes its rise in the mountains of Andalusia by Toledo and Silves. It is almost as great a river as the Tigris. After passing through Spain it flows out to the Ocean, its length being 100 leagues.
River Jayḥūn (Oxus). This is also known as the Āmūyah,
and its (head waters) are formed by the junction of six streams.
It is a very famous river, and it forms the eastern boundary of
Īrān, flowing from south to north. One of its head streams comes
down from the mountains of Tibet, another is from the hills of
Badakhshān, a third from the Ṣaghāniyān frontiers, and a fourth
is from the limits of Khutlān. Each one of these, prior to its
junction with the main river, receives many minor streams, and
certain of these have their courses through the lands of Balkh and
Tirmid. After all these streams have come together, the Oxus
passes through the Narrows, which are known as the Defile of
the Lion’s Mouth. This is near the village of Būqshah, which
is a dependency of Hazārasp. This defile runs between two
mountains, which approach so near one to the other that the space
in between is barely 100 ells across. The water rushes through
with a mighty roar, and then is lost underground in the sands.
Here for the space of a league it is no longer visible: and
there is no possibility of crossing the sands above. (When the
stream has come again to view) many great canals are led off
from the Oxus, beside which stand mighty towns and many
cultivated lands. Of such are the Canal of Gāv Khuwārah, the
Hazārasp Stream, that of Kardurān Khās, the Karīh Canal, the
Khīvah Canal and others, and in each of them boats can with
ease pass along. Some of these canals have their outflow [
Jurjān River. This rises in the Asand mountains of Māzan- darān, from the valley of Shahrak-Naw; and passing the Maydān (plain) of Sulṭān Darīn comes to Jurjān city; after which it flows out to the Caspian. But little of the water of this river is used for irrigation, and most of it runs to waste. Its stream is very deep, its banks are steep, and for this reason it is very dangerous to ford, so that no day passes without someone being drowned in its waters. The length of this river is 50 leagues.
Dijlah (Tigris). Of Baghdād. This rises in the mountains
(to the north) of Āmid, in the chain forming the frontier of
Ḥiṣn Dhū-l-Qarnayn (the Castle of Alexander). Many streams
join its current as it passes through the districts of Rūm (Asia
Minor) and Armenia to Mayyāfāriqīn, whence it comes to Ḥiṣn
(Kayfā). Then before reaching the province of Arabian `Irāq,
the streams coming from Armenia flow in; while below Baghdād
the Nahrawān Canal joins it. Below Wāsiṭ five considerable
canals are taken from its stream, namely, the Daqlā Canal, the
I`rāf Canal, with the Ja`far, the Maysān, and the Sāsī Canals;
until in consequence so little water remains in its main channel
that boats can no longer pass down. Below the village of
Maṭārah1
(after leaving the Swamps) the remaining waters of the
Tigris are joined by the Euphrates stream coming (also) from the
Swamps; then further down it is joined by the rivers that flow
down from Khūzistān, and all these go to form the Shaṭṭ-al-`Arab
(the Tigris Estuary) which below Baṣrah finally flows out into
the Persian Gulf. The length of the Tigris is 300 leagues. In
Persian it is known [
Now when Farīdūn had overpassed the Arvand River
He bade goodbye to his royal fortune.
Dujayl (the Little Tigris or Kārūn river) of Tustar. This rises in the Zardah Kūh (Yellow Mountain) of the range in Great Lur, and after flowing some 30 odd leagues it reaches the city of Tustar. Now the distance hither is so short that its waters are still quite cold, and they greatly aid digestion; whereby the country folk in these hot lands relying on their digestive properties are enabled to eat great quantities of rich food. Below Tustar king Sapor II built the Weir (Shādravān) across the river, and divided the stream into three parts, (two of which) he caused to flow round and about Tustar. One of these, called the Chahār Dānik (Four-sixths), in its upper channel flowed to the west of the city; while the other, namely the Dū Dānik (Two-sixths) canal, in a newly dug channel flowed to the east of the town. Both channels came together again near Lashkar, and here they were joined by the Dizfūl and Karkhah rivers, after which the united streams flowed out to the Shaṭṭ-al-`Arab (Tigris Estuary). The length of the Tustar river is 80 leagues.
Dizfūl River. This is also known as the Junday Shāpūr river. It rises in the mountains of Greater Lur, and passing by (the towns of) Jundī Shāpūr and Dizfūl it joins the Tustar river in the Masruqān country, and flows out to the Tigris Estuary. Its total length is 60 leagues.
The Two Zābs. These take their name from Zāb who was son of king Tahmāsp the Pīshdādian. One of the two rivers is called the Greater Zāb, and it rises in the mountains of Armenia. It flows down through the Diyār Bakr province, and joins the Tigris near Ḥadīthah. Its length is 80 leagues. The other river is called the Mad Zāb, because its current is extremely swift. It too rises in the Armenian mountains, flowing down through Armenia into the Diyār Bakr province where, near the Hill of Sinn, it joins the Tigris. Its length is 30 leagues. The poet Ibn Mufarrigh has said, alluding to this same river:
Verily (Ibn Zubayr) who, when living, was ever faithless to his word,
Has died like a slave, slain by God, on the banks of the Zāb river.
Razīq (wrongly Zarīq) River. In Khurāsān: and it is also
known as the Murghāb, the origin of the name being Marv-āb
(Marv river). According to some it is at the source that this river
is known as Murghāb; and it is called Razīq because in the village
[
And Yazdajird we slew with a cutting blow,
When in fear he turned to flee, seeking a refuge,
And his people we slew in battle, grinding them as a mill-stone grinds,
On the Day of Razīq, when they would have returned to the charge1.
The length of the Murghāb river is 30 leagues.
Zindah Rūd (or River) of Iṣfahān. Its waters rise in the
Kūh Zardah (Yellow Mountain), and other ranges of Greater
Lur, in the Jūy-i-Sard (Cold Stream) district. It passes through
Luristān and the Rūdbār district, and thence comes to Fīrūzān
and Iṣfahān. Below this in the Rūdasht district its waters dis-
appear in the Gāv Khānī Swamp. Its total length is 70 leagues.
This river has the peculiarity that when from the one source its
waters fail, then (from its affluent) the Zahāb Rūd sufficient water
flows to keep its stream in full flood; and it is from this reason
that it is known as the Zāyandah Rūd (Living Stream). Further,
because in the sowing time, none of its waters are wasted, but all
are used up in irrigation channels, it is also known as the Zarīn
Rūd (the Golden River). Ibn Khurdādbih and Qazvīnī both
assert that 60 leagues beyond the Gāv Khānī Swamp this same
river reappears in the province of Kirmān, and thence finally
flows out into the Eastern Sea. It is also stated that in times
past bits of reed, marked with a sign, were thrown into its waters
in the Gāv Khānī Swamp, and afterwards were recovered in
Kirmān. None the less this account is hardly to be credited, for
in between the Gāv Khānī Swamp and Kirmān the soil is very
hard, and there are high mountains, and no underground passage
through them, by which so large a body of water could pass, is
possible. Further the land in Kirmān is higher than the land of
the Gāv Khānī Swamp. Then again from Kirmān to the Eastern
Sea is in truth also a very great distance, with many countries
lying in between, so that if indeed the river flowed after this
fashion it would have to traverse all these countries: and yet it
is nowhere visible in these parts. Lastly, in years of drought,
when the ground of the Gāv [
Zakān (Thakān) River. Of Fārs. It rises in the mountain of (the village of) Dih Khusrūyah, and waters the plains and district of Māṣaram, Kavār, Khabr, Ṣimkān, Kārzīn, Qīr, Abzar and Lāghir; also a portion of the Sīrāf district. In this latter country the streams from the hills thereof join the Zakān river, and last of all it passes the village called Zakān (Thakān), from which same the river takes its name. Finally, in between Najīram and Sīrāf it falls out into the Persian Gulf; and in all this land there is no river that is more beneficial than this. The length of its course is 50 leagues.
Safīd Rūd. The Turks call this river Hūlān Mūrān1, and it rises in the mountains of Panj Angusht, which in Turkish are called Besh Parmāq, (signifying in either case ‘the Five Fingers’;) which are in Kurdistān. Then it is joined by the Zanjān river, by the Hasht Rūd, the Miyānij river, also by the streams flowing down from the mountains of Ṭālish and the Two Ṭārums. In the district of Barah, which is of the Two Ṭārums, it is joined by the Shāhrūd river, and then flows out to the Caspian near Kawtam in Gīlān. Its length is 100 leagues, and of its waters hardly any is used for irrigation, except for that little which waters the lands lying immediately along its bed, and most of it is wasted.
River Sayḥūn (Jaxartes). This is of Mā-warā-n-Nahr (Trans- oxiana), and this province is named Mā-warā-n-Nahr (What is beyond the River) because to the west of it flows the Oxus, while to the east of it flows the Jaxartes, and thus from either side it is regarded as the Land beyond the River. The people of the country called the Jaxartes by the name Gul Zaryūn1. It rises among the snows, then its stream passes Khujand and Fanākat, and finally reaches the Khwārazm Lake (Aral). This river too, like the Oxus, freezes so hard in winter that at many places caravans cross on the ice. The length of this river is 80 leagues.
Shāsh River2. Of Transoxiana; it rises in the mountains of Jidghil, and after being joined by the Khūshāb river, also by the streams from Ūsh, it passes through Farghānah by Ūzkand and Marghanān. After watering many districts it finally flows out to the Aral Sea, and its length is 40 leagues.
Shāhrūd River. In the Rūdbār district of Qazvīn are two
torrents, one coming down from the Ṭāliqān hills of Qazvīn, the
other from the Nasr (Vulture) and Takhmas3
[
The River `Āṣī (Orontes). In Syria. Its source is in the Ba`albak mountain, after which it passes the districts of Ḥimṣ and Ḥamāh and other Syrian towns. Then penetrating into the lands of (the Greek Emperor) Nicephorus, and to Sīs which is of Little Armenia, it finally flows out to the Mediterranean. Now this river is called `Āṣī (‘the Rebel’) for the reason that while most of the great rivers flow from the Infidel lands into the Moslem country, this contrariwise flows away from the Moslems to the Infidels.
The Farah River. This rises in the mountain of the Ghūr country; and after passing many districts, which it irrigates, such of its waters as are left flow out into the Zarah Lake of Sīstān. It is not known how many leagues in length it is.
River Qārā Murān4. This is a great stream of the province of Khitāy (China): and so broad that it can only be passed by boat.
Qīrghīz River1. This flows to the eastward of Turkistān, and is a great river.
Karkhah River. This is also known as the River of Sūs. It rises in the Alvand mountain near Hamadān, and it is joined by the streams from Dīnavar; also by the rivers Kūlkū and Sīlākhūr, the Khurramābād river and the Kazhkī. It next passes down to the Ḥawīzah district, where it joins the streams from Tustar and Dizfūl, flowing out finally to the Shaṭṭ-al-`Arab (Tigris Estuary). The length of the Karkhah to its junction with the Shaṭṭ-al-`Arab is 120 leagues.
River Kur (Cyrus) of Arrān. This rises in the mountains of Qālīqalā, and when it comes to the province of Gurjistān (Georgia) passes through the city of Tiflīs, and then reaches the province of Arrān. Here one branch of the river flows off into the Shamkūr Lake (or swamp); while the branch of the main stream at Yūrt Bāzār Anbārjī after being joined by the river Aras with the Qarā Sū, finally, in the Gushtāsfī country, flows out to the Caspian. The length of the Kur is 200 leagues.
River Kur (Cyrus) of Fārs2.
This rises in the Kallār district
in Fārs; and it is joined by the streams from Shi`b Bavvān, and
from Māyin, and by other small rivers of these parts. [
Gang (Ganges). The river of India. This rises in the mountains that lie between China and India: and the people of India hold this river to be most blessed, even as the Moslems do the (Sayḥān and Jayḥān) rivers of Asia Minor, affirming that its source is from Paradise. They will carry away its water, even for a distance of 200 leagues, on account of the sanctity thereof. Their great people and holy men, when they come to die, are washed with its waters, and they bring their winding sheets to dip them in the same; further, they lave their temples therewith. The length of the Ganges is 300 leagues.
Mihrān River (Indus). It is also called the Sind River, and it further is known as the Jīlum (Jhelam). It rises in the mountains between Sīstān and Badakhshān: and here, while the Indus flows away from the southern slope, the Oxus has its sources upon the northern slope of these same mountains. The river Indus, after passing Samandūr and Manṣūrah, skirts Makrān and the Daybul districts, and at a distance of two leagues from Daybul flows out into the Indian Sea. Its length is 180 leagues, and it is twice as broad as the Tigris; further, like the Nile, its waters inundate the land on its banks, and thus these are fertilized for cultivation.
Nahrawān River. In Arabian `Irāq. It has two head
streams, both of which rise in the Kurdistān mountains. One
stream is from the Shīrvān district, and there it is called the
Shīrvān river: when this reaches Tāmarrah it is known as the
Tāmarrah river, and when finally it comes to join the other branch,
it then takes the name of Nahrawān. The other head stream
rises in the district of Gīl and Gīlān, in the pass called Girīvah-
i-Ṭāq-i-Girrā (namely of the White Marble Arch): and its source
is at a great spring, that would be sufficient to turn ten water-
mills. It then passes Ḥulwān, and Qaṣr-i-Shīrīn and Khāniqīn
[
River Harī Rūd (Herāt river). This rises in the mountains of Ghūr, near the Guard-house called Rubāṭ Kardān. Many affluents join it, and then nine canals are drawn from it. The first of these is called the Naw Jūy (New Canal), the second is the Adhrījān, the third the Lashkargān, the fourth the Karāgh canal, the fifth is that of Ghūsmān, the sixth of Kanak, the seventh of Safghar, the eighth is the Anjīr (Fig) canal which waters Herāt city, and the ninth is the Bārasht. On (the lower reach of) the Harī Rūd lie many fertile districts, such as those of Fūshanj and others, and after this river has passed Herāt it comes to Sarakhs, (beyond which it flows into the swamps). Its total length is 83 leagues.
River Hirmand (Helmand). This is also known as the Zarah river, and it rises in the mountains of Ghūr. After it has passed Bust, some canals are taken from it, each so great that a horse can with difficulty ford the same, and on these canals lie many fertile districts. The Hirmand river next enters the Sīstān province, which it serves to irrigate, and then its remaining waters flow out to the Zarah Lake. The total length of this river is 135 leagues.
Lesser Rivers. Jāyij-Rūd. The Qum river. The Gāvmāsā. Zanjān river. Streams of the Two Ṭārums. The Kāshān river. Muzdaqān and the Lake of Sāvah. The Qazvīn rivers. The rivers of Ādharbāyjān. The Āhar river. The Sarāv and other streams flowing into the Lake of Urmīyah. The Marand river. The rivers of Miyānij. The rivers of Fārs, Shabānkārah and Kirmān. The Pulvār. Ṭāb, Shīrīn and Jirrah rivers. The Ratīn and Jarshīq. The Dīv Rūd. The Shāpūr river. The Burāzah. The rivers of Upper Mesopo- tamia. Balīkh and Khābūr. The Hirmās and the Ṣūr. Rivers of Khurāsān. Rivers Shūrah and Dizbād, with other streams round Nīshāpūr. The Wakh- shāb and the Jaghān Rūd. The rivers of Arabian `Irāq. The rivers of Bayāt, Daqūq, and of Barāz-ar-Rūz
But now as regards the smaller rivers, with their springs and sources; and the following are in Persian `Irāq.
River Jāyij-Rūd. This rises in Mount Damāvand, and flows through the Ray province. In the districts of Upper Qūhad and Asān its waters are divided up and diverted into near forty channels, which serve to irrigate most of the Ray province. In spring time its flood waters make their way out into the desert. Its total length is 30 leagues.
Karah-Rūd. This rises in the Ṭāliqān and Qazvīn mountains. In the Sāuj Bulāgh district many water channels are led from it, whereby most of the lands of the Ray and Shahriyār districts are irrigated. In spring its overflow reaches the desert, and its length is 25 leagues.
Qum-Rūd. It rises in the mountains of Khānīsār and Lālistān,
in the Jurbādaqān district. It flows past the towns of Jurbādaqān
and Qum, whence its flood waters reach the desert. [
River Gāvmāsā-Rūd (or Gāvmāsāb). For the most part its streams rise in the Alvand mountain of Hamadān, one of them coming down from the Asadābād Pass, being the Māmshān-Rūd of Farīvar in the Hamadān district; while another of its streams is from the mountain of Rāsmand and the other hills near Karaj. After passing to the meadow lands of Kītū, this branch comes to Hamadān, and thence to the Sāvah districts. But when the river reaches the neighbourhood of Āvah and Sāvah it forms a Lake behind the dam which the late Khwājah Shams-ad-Dīn Muḥammad, Ṣāḥib Dīvān (the Prime Minister) caused to be built, to hold back its waters. In the spring floods, however, these flow out into the desert, after passing by the bridge called Haftād Pūlān (Seventy Arches), which stands between Sāvah and Āvah, and which was built by the Atabeg Shīrgīr. The irrigation of the lands of Āvah and Sāvah during the summer droughts depends on this dam. The total length of this river is 40 leagues: and for all the Sāvah district this river is as important as is the Zāyandah- Rūd (for the Iṣfahān districts).
Zanjān Rūd. This river also goes by the name of the Māj- Rūd. It rises in the district round Sulṭāniyyah, and after being joined by many streams from the Zanjān hills, it passes through the districts of Zanjān, and finally flows into the Safīd Rūd. Its length is 20 leagues, and for 10 leagues below its sources it serves to irrigate the lands that lie along its banks.
Abhar-Rūd. This river rises in the Allāh Akbar district of Sulṭāniyyah in Mount Sarāhand, and it flows out into the Qazvīn district. In the spring floods its waters here join the streams from the Qazvīn hills, and then are lost in the desert. The length of the Abhar river is 20 leagues; and this river also, in regard to the Abhar and Qazvīn districts, is a fount of abundance, as is the Zāyandah Rūd (for Iṣfahān).
Kharūd River. This rises in the hills of the Kharūd district, and comes down to the districts of Rāmand and Dashtī near Qazvīn. Its waters in the spring freshets flow out to the desert, and its length is 25 leagues.
Rivers of the Two Ṭārums. These all rise in the hills of the Two Ṭārum districts and their dependencies, and flow out to join the Safīd Rūd, irrigating the corn-lands of the Ṭārums on their courses. In summer most of their waters are thus used up for irrigation, and little flows out into the Safīd Rūd, but in the spring freshets a major quantity of water drains thereto.
Kāshān River. This rises in the hills of Nayāsīr and Qumṣar,
flowing down to Kāshān. In the spring freshets its waters flow
out to the desert: and at that time if the flood is heavy [
Muzdaqān River. This rises in the Kharraqān hills near Hamadān. It next passes through Muzdaqān, and then comes to Sāvah and its district. In the Days of Ignorance (before Islam) its surplus waters here formed the Lake of Sāvah, but now, through the miracle performed by the Prophet (at the time of his birth) this Lake has come to be dried up, and on its site the city of Sāvah has been built. The waters of the river having been thus caused to pass on, now flow out to the desert, and its total length is 25 leagues.
Būh Rūd. This river rises in the hills of Ṭāliqān, and it flows out through the Qazvīn district. In the spring freshets its waters reach the desert, but in the summer droughts they do not get beyond the neighbourhood of Qazvīn.
Kardān-Rūd. This river rises in the hills of Ṭāliqān, and flows through the Ray district. In spring the freshets reach the desert.
Turkān-Rūd. This river rises in the hills of Kharraqān and flows to the Qazvīn district. Its waters in the spring freshets reach the desert, where they become lost: but in the summer drought they do not get beyond the neighbourhood of Qazvīn.
The Qazvīn Rivers. These are four in number: and if they are full of water the gardens of Qazvīn have plentiful irrigation, but if otherwise, then many gardens suffer drought. In the summer season the waters of these streams, by reason of the numerous farms above Qazvīn, never reach the city, and that there should then be any flood water is very unusual.
Kharraqān River. This rises in the hills of the district of that name, and during the spring floods its waters flow through the bed of the Khushk Rūd (the Dry River) down to the district of Ray; where, after being joined by other streams, the flood water finally reaches the desert. In the summer time, however, this stream never gets beyond the borders of the Kharraqān district.
The Rivers of Ādharbāyjān.
Andarāb River. This rises in Mount Sablān, and when it passes the city and district of Ardabīl it is known as the Ardabīl river, but when it reaches Andarāb it is called the Andarāb river. After passing under the Bridge of `Alī Shāh it joins the Āhar river, which flows out to the Aras. Its length is 25 leagues.
Āhar River. This rises in the Pass of the Armenians, which
the Mongols call Gūkchah Nīl (the Blue Lake), its head spring
being in that district. The river then flows past the town of
Āhar, and the Castle of Naw Diz, and next by the [
Ūjān River. This rises in Mount Sahand, and after passing Ūjān town, joins the Sarāv river. Its length is 7 leagues.
Jaghtū River. This rises in the Kurdistān mountains in the district of the Siyāh Kūh (Black Mountain) village. Thence it flows to the neighbourhood of Marāghah, and there joins the rivers Ṣāfī and Taghtū, flowing out finally to the Salt Lake of Ṭarūj (or Ṭasūj; the Urmīyah Lake). Its length is 20 leagues.
Sarāv Rūd. This river rises in Mount Sablān, and after passing through the town of Sarāv comes in the neighbourhood of the village of Kūlvānah to the salt marshes, by reason of which its waters afterwards are salt. Here it is joined by the Ūjān River, and next flowing past Tabrīz, it finally reaches the Urmīyah Lake: its total length being 40 leagues.
Sard Rūd (Cold River) and Bāvīl Rūd. These rivers rise in Mount Sahand and passing through the lands above mentioned, flow out during the spring freshet into the Sarāv river, and thence to the Urmīyah Lake. In length these rivers are 6 leagues.
Sanjīdah and Gadīv (or Kadpū). These are two rivers in their origin, but soon join their streams, and then flow into the Safīd Rūd. Their length is 8 leagues.
Ṣāfī. This river rises in Mount Sahand, and passing Marāghah is joined by the Taghtū, after which it flows out to the Lake of Urmīyah. Its length is 20 leagues.
Shāl Rūd. This river rises in the Shāl hills, and in the neighbourhood of Barandaq flows into the Safīd Rūd. Its length is 8 leagues.
Mard Rūd. This river rises in Mount Sahand, and after passing by Marāghah joins the Jaghtū river in the valley of Gāv Davān, and thence flows out to the Urmīyah Lake. Its length is 8 leagues.
Garm Rūd (Hot River). This rises in the mountains of Sarāv, and in the Garm Rūd district joins the Miyānij river, which after- wards flows out to the Safīd Rūd. Its length is 12 leagues.
Mihrān Rūd. This rises in Mount Sahand and then loses
itself among the gardens of Tabrīz; but during the spring
floods its surplus waters join the river Sarāv Rūd, by which
they flow out to the Lake of Urmīyah. Its total length is
7 leagues [
Marand River. This is also called Zakvīr, and in spring flood it is impassable. It rises in the mountains of Marand, and on the authority of Qazvīnī the statement is made that, according to an account given by Muḥammad Dhū-l-Fiqār of Marand, this river before reaching Marand disappears under ground, and then after 4 leagues reappears again, coming thus to Marand. The overflow of this river, in the spring floods, joins the Khoi river, which runs out to the Aras. Its length is 8 leagues.
Miyānij River. This rises in the mountains round Ūjān and after passing these territories joins the river Hasht Rūd in the plain round Miyānij, whence it flows into the Safīd Rūd, thus finally reaching the Caspian. Its length is 20 leagues.
Taghtū River. This rises in the neighbourhood of the Sīnā Pass, in the mountains of Kurdistān. It afterwards joins the Jaghtū river, and thus flows out to the Urmīyah Lake. Its length is 15 leagues.
Hasht Rūd (Eight Streams). This river rises in the mountains near Marāghah and Ūjān: and it joins the Safīd Rūd near Miyānij, its length being 20 leagues. The Bridge of Miyānij which has 32 arches crosses this stream: and it was built by the Khwājah Shams-ad-Dīn Muḥammad, Ṣāḥib Dīvān.
Now as regards the rivers of Fārs1, Shabānkārah and Kirmān.
Purvāb (Pulvār). This river rises in the hill of Dih Purvāb, and waters most of the Marvdasht plain, falling out finally to the Kur (Cyrus) river. Its length is 18 leagues.
Ṭāb River. It rises in the hills near Sumayram of Luristān, and is not always fordable. After being joined by the Masin river, it passes under the Thakān bridge, and next waters the districts of Rīshahr: flowing out finally into the sea near Sīnīz. This river forms the frontier line between the provinces of Fārs and of Khūzistān, and its total length is 47 leagues.
Masin River. This too rises in the mountain lands of Sumayram and Sīmsakht. It is a great river and not easily fordable even on horse-back. It falls into the Ṭāb river, and its length is 40 leagues.
Shīrīn River (the Sweet-water River). This rises in the Dīnār
hills, and is a large river, being fordable [
Shādhkān River. This rises in the Bāzrang hills, and passing through the districts of Kahargān and Dasht Rustāq, flows into the sea. It is a great river, and not easily fordable even on horse- back; its length is 9 leagues.
Jirrah River. This rises in the Māṣaram district: it waters Naḥast Masjān (or Masanjān) and Jirrah, also part of the Ghundījān district. Then it joins the Shāpūr river, and thus reaches the sea. Its length is 19 leagues.
Darkhīd River. This is a great river and scarcely fordable. Its length is 15 leagues.
Khwābdān River. This is also a great river, and it rises in the mountains of Jūyīgān. It irrigates the lands of the Nawbanjān district, and then in the neighbourhood of Jallādjān joins the river Shīrīn, and thus attains to the sea. It is a large river, and its length is 11 leagues.
Ratīn River. This rises in the mountains of Upper Humā- yijān. It is a great stream, and it flows into the Shāpūr river, its length till it joins the Shāpūr river being 10 leagues.
Jarshīq River. This rises in the hills of Māṣaram, and is a great stream. After passing the Bridge of Sabūk it joins the Ikhshīn river, and its length down to the Ikhshīn is 8 leagues.
Ikhshīn River. This rises in the Dādīn hills. It is a great stream, and it falls into the Tawwaj (or Shāpūr) river. Its length down to its junction with this stream is 8 leagues.
River Sardah1. This rises in the mountains of Dār Khār Shāh, and after passing through the district of Jūr falls into the sea. Its length is but 1 league.
Dīv Rūd. This river rises in the Jīruft district of Kirmān, and its stream is very swift: hence its name of Dīv Rūd (Demon River). It is capable of turning 20 mill wheels.
Bishāvūr (Shāpūr) River. This rises in the Bishāvur
mountains: it waters the farms of Bishāvur (Shāpūr city) and
the Khisht district and that of Dih Mālik: [
Burāzah River. This is the river of Fīrūzābād, and its source is in the mountains of Khunayfqān. It waters the district round the city of Fīrūzābād, and then joins the Thakān (Zakān) river thus reaching the sea. Its length down to the junction with the Thakān is 12 leagues.
Rivers of the Diyār Bakr Province (Upper Mesopotamia).
Balīkh River. This rises at the Spring of Dahānah, in the neighbourhood of Ḥarrān, and flows out to the Euphrates below Raqqah. Its length is 8 leagues.
River Khābūr. This rises at Rās-al-`Ayn, where there gushes out a spring of water sufficient to turn ten mill wheels: and there join it from near by here some 300 other springs. Its waters flow through the Hirmās territory, and then after passing Qirkīsiyā it flows out into the Euphrates. The length of this river is 25 leagues.
River Hirmās. This rises at a spring in the neighbourhood of Naṣībīn in the Ṭūr `Abdīn district; there being sufficient water power to turn two mills. The sides of the spring are lined with cement, in order to regulate the outflow of the water. The Caliph Mutawakkil caused this lining to be broken through, on which the water so much got the upper hand, that all was like to go to ruin. Thereupon he commanded that things should be set back as they were aforetime. The river passes Naṣībīn, and then in the neighbourhood of Ḥānah joins the river Khābūr, and thus reaches the Euphrates. Its length is 12 leagues.
River Tharthār. This takes its outflow from the Hirmās river, and after passing Ḥaḍr flows into the Tigris.
Ṣūr River. This rises in the mountains of Mārdīn, and it waters the lands of this town, after which it flows out to the Euphrates. It is 10 leagues in length.
The Rivers of Khurāsān and Quhistān.
Shūrah Rūd (Salt River). This is of Nīshāpūr, and it passes through the Nīshāpūr district, where the streams from the hills on either side of the valley flow down into it. Thus all the lands of the Nīshāpūr district are irrigated by its course.
Dizbād River. This rises in the Dizbād hills: and in the spring floods its overflow goes to the Shūrah Rūd. At other seasons its waters are lost in the Dizbād plain: and its length is 5 leagues.
River Sakhtar. This rises in the Sakhtar hills, and it waters
some of the Nīshāpūr district, and also some other districts. [
River Kharū. This rises in the mountains of the Nīshāpūr district, and flows through the Kharū village, and some others, after which its waters usually become lost, though in the spring floods its overflow reaches the Shūrah River. At other seasons, however, the stream does not come down even to the neighbour- hood of the city of Nīshāpūr.
Būshtaḥqān River. This rises in the neighbourhood of the Chashmah-i-Sabz (Green Spring) and flows down to Nīshāpūr, in the district of which its waters are lost. Its length is 4 leagues.
Pusht Farūsh River. This rises in the mountains of Dar Rūd, and thence comes to Pusht Farūsh, Asqarīsh and other places. Its flood waters in spring flow to the Shūrah Rūd, and its length is 5 leagues.
Khajank River. It rises in the hills of that name, and expends its waters among the villages there, its length being 4 leagues.
Farkhak River. This rises in the hills round the lake of Chashmah-i-Sabz, and loses its waters among the cultivated lands of those districts. In spring its flood waters serve to irrigate the villages lower down, and they then join the Shūrah Rūd. Its length is 2 leagues.
River Dahar. This too rises in the district of the Chashmah-i- Sabz, and its waters are expended in the district round the city of Nīshāpūr, its flood waters in spring falling out to the Shūrah Rūd. Its length is 4 leagues.
River Baqīrān. This rises in the district of the same name, losing itself among the fields of that neighbourhood, and its length is 4 leagues.
River Chārsaf Rūd. This is formed by two streams, one of which rises in the hills of Bārdawayh, the other in the Ṭaghān and Chārsaf hills. Coming together these streams water the neighbouring lands. Their total length is 15 leagues.
`Aṭshābād River. This rises in the plain called Maydān-i-
Sulṭān, and in the spring floods would be capable of turning
20 mill wheels. Its surplus waters flow to the Shūrah Rūd. In
the hot season, [
Wakhshāb1 River. This rises in the mountains of Khutlān, and passing through Khutlān comes to the country over against Balkh, where in the Tirmid district it joins the Jayḥūn (Oxus). Its length is 30 leagues.
River Jaghān Rūd. There is in the neighbourhood of Jājarm a mountain that rises like a perpendicular wall, and from the midst of this mountain wall three springs burst forth, side by side, each sufficient in volume to turn a mill wheel. For the space of an arrow flight they flow as through a spout, and then serve to irrigate many of the lands of Jājarm, and of the neighbourhood. The length of the stream is 12 leagues.
The rivers of Arabian `Irāq.
Bayāt River. This rises in the mountains of Kurdistān, and coming down to the Bayāt district irrigates all the gardens and fields and palm groves of that country side, after which its over- flow is lost in the plain.
Daqūq River. This rises in the Kurdistān mountains in the neighbourhood of the pass called Darband-i-Khalīfah. It flows by the town of Daqūq, and then 5 leagues below this place comes to the sands, after which at most seasons but little of its waters is any more seen. In these places there are moving (or quick) sands, and a man is sucked down and the sand rises above his head so that he perishes. On account of which along this ground they have set up sign posts, and marks to prevent men passing, and so to keep them from destruction. The flood waters of this river in spring time join the Tigris, and its total length is 5 leagues.
Barāz-ar-Rūz River. This rises in the mountains of Kur- distān and irrigates the district of Barāz-ar-Rūz, after which its flood waters are lost in the plain.
The Seven Seas, and the Circumambient Ocean. The ebb and flow of the Tide. First, the Sea of China. Wāqwāq Islands (Japan). Java and the neighbouring islands. Rāmnī (Sumatra). Marvels and wonders. The Whirlpools. Second, the Sea of India, or the Green Sea. Ceylon. Kallah (Quedah) and Sarbuzah. Other Islands with diverse wonders. The Persian Gulf: its islands. Pearl diving and the two Reefs. The Red Sea. The whirlpool of Jabalāt. The Sea of Ḥimyar. Third, the Sea of Zang (Zanzi- bar). The island of Wāghlah, and others. Fourth, the Western Sea. The Confluence of the Two Seas, and the Straits of Gibraltar. Andalusia. Sicily, Crete and other islands. The Fortunate Isles. Fifth, the Sea of the Franks. Alexander’s Cut (the Hellespont) and the Passage of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar). Tinnīs. The island of Khāliṣah. Sixth, the Ghālāṭiqūn, or Sea of Varāng. Seventh, the Eastern Sea. The Caspian. Lakes. Bakh- tigān and other lakes of Fārs. The Lakes of Urmīyah and Vān. Minor Lakes. The Lake of Zarah in Sīstān. The Sea of Aral. Tinnīs Lake in Egypt
SECTION 5. Concerning Seas and Lakes.
As has been already stated (in the earlier part of this work) the
waters which surround the habitable world are known to the Arabs
as the Circumambient Sea (Baḥr-i-Muḥīṭ), while the Persians
name these the Great Sea and the Greeks call them the Ocean
(Baḥr-i-Uqiyānūs). Now these waters are divided into seven bays,
by reason of the high and low lands which stretch out from the
continent, and the same are known as the Seven Seas. Each is
a mighty Sea, with numerous Islands, and in books of cosmogony
it is stated that in the Seven Seas there are altogether more than
12,000 islands, inhabited and under cultivation, being well provided
with fresh water; [
In the matter of the Seas I shall now set down, summarily and abridging details, what I have read in books of cosmogony, or heard by the report of men worthy of confidence, in order that this present work may contain all needful information, and I begin with the east and then go towards the south.
The First Sea. This is the Sea of Greater and Lesser China (Chīn wa Māchīn), it is the largest of all the seas, and towards China there is a great gulf; further in this sea there are counted 3700 islands.
Wāqwāq Islands1.
The most famous thereof are these, and
they consist of above a hundred isles. Here there are trees with
leaves, which the wind as it blows causes to strike one against
the other, and give forth the sound Wāqwāq; whence these
islands have taken their name. The king of this country is
known by the name of Kashmīr. Ibn Khurdādbih states that
pure gold is there so plentiful that they make the collars for their
dogs, and the tripods for their pots of it; while iron is so rare
that they use it for ornaments and in jewelry. This account,
however, is hardly credible, though indeed it was always ad-
vantageous to carry away gold thence to all other countries;
for this was manifestly the most profitable commodity for
export; [
Islands of Jābah and Zābij2. These lie on the Indian frontier, and their king is named Maharāj. Ibn Khurdādbih states3 that he is lord of so many and such populous isles that every day the royal revenue amounts to 200 Mann-weight of gold. In the Island of Jābah is a mountain on the summit of which is a place, measuring a hundred ells square, which is all luminous with fire. By night the fire is visible rising up to a height of two spear-lengths and a hundred ells across, while by day it shows as smoke, and it never becomes extinguished. On this island there are winged men who can fly.
Salāmī Isles1. The air here is better than that of any other island; hence any person who goes thither from our countries, by reason of the excellence of the climate here, and the abundance of good things, never can find it in his heart to leave that place again.
Island of Niyās2. A long and broad island, densely in- habited by wild people, who are, however, very handsome in face. By reason of their good looks our folk often catch the women here and keep them in bonds, begetting children from them; but when occasion befalls most of these women, having no true affection for their offspring, escape and flee away.
Island of Dam. Here there are men of powerful build but hideous in face; and they are cannibals who live by eating human flesh.
Island of Rāmnī3. It is very populous, the men being short of stature so as to be only four spans in height. They climb trees with their hands only, not using their feet. In this island is the great Camphor tree.
Island of Aṭūr4. Here live the Dog-headed men.
There are many more islands in this Sea, but to name them
all would be tedious. Upon them too live numerous strange
beasts, such as the Great Frog, the Civet Cat, the Musk Rat, the
White Ape, the Great Serpent which can carry off an elephant;
[
The Second Sea. This is the Indian Sea, otherwise called the Green Sea; and here there are reckoned to be near to 2300 islands, also many marvels. This sea has three arms, each of which forms a great sea; the first arm is the Sea of `Omān and Fārs, also called the Sea of Baṣrah; the second arm is the Red Sea, and the third is the Sea of Ḥimyar. In each of these arms are many islands, which will be noticed in due course. The span of the Indian Sea, counting from where it leaves the Circum- ambient Ocean to where its three arms branch from it, is said to measure 500 leagues. Of its most notable islands are the follow- ing, beginning at its point of origin.
Island of Saylān (Ceylon). This is 80 leagues both long and across, and the mountain of Sarandīb1 on which Adam—peace be upon him—was cast forth out of Paradise is in this island. Also near by is the passage of the sea, where Adam walked afoot, but it now takes a ship two or three days here to cross over. In this mountain, and around it, are mines of various coloured Corundums (Sapphires and Rubies); also of the Diamond and Smyris (emery) and rock crystal. Further aloes-wood is found here, with other aromatics, and both the Musk Deer and the Civet Cat are met with in great numbers, while in the sea round this island they dive for pearls.
Islands of Kallah and Sarbuzah2.
Here there are numerous
tin mines. [
Island of Grapes. Here there are elephants of such huge size that some attain a height of ten ells.
Island of Barṭāyil. Qazvīnī states that every night a sound of woe is heard coming from here, as though one were calling for redress. They say there are men here, whom by day no one can see, but who come out at night; and these play on musical instruments. In this island grow many aromatics, for obtaining which merchants come thither, and each merchant sets down his goods separately, leaving them, and by night the people of the island come and over against each bale they set a quantity of aromatics. If the amount satisfies the merchant he takes it, otherwise he leaves it till more be added3. But should any merchant feloniously carry away both the bales, then the sea rises and shuts off his road for departing.
Island of Rāmnī1. Here is found the nest of (that great bird) the Sīmurgh.
Island of Ants and Gnats. Here every ant is the size of a dog, and every gnat like a sparrow, and they sting hurting abominably; so that in this island no other living thing exists.
Island of Salāqaṭ. On this isle are many buildings, and there is a spring where the waters burst forth as in a fountain, and the overflow petrifies; one day this is white in colour but the second day it is black.
Castle Island. Qazvīnī reports that in this island is a moun- tain, upon which is a white rock like a kiosk (or castle); and the island takes its name therefrom. Anyone who makes his way on to that rock is almost overcome by sleep, and if he gives way to sleep he slumbers on till he dies; but even if he rouses himself so as to get down the mountain again, for some days after he is as one silly.
Islands of Mālān and of the Dog-heads. These are several isles, where there are many tribes (of the Dog-headed men) who wage war continuously with the men of the other Islands.
Islands of Diversity. These are three isles; in one it continually lightens, in another it always rains, while in the third the wind blows perpetually. These conditions never vary and no one island ever experiences the conditions of the others.
Island of the Dragon. This is very long and broad, [
Island of Kaykālūs. Here the people have no clothes, and their food consists of bananas, cocoa-nuts, Indian nuts and fish. They cover their nakedness with the leaves of trees.
Karāram Isles. Here there is much ambergris.
Now in regard to the description of other islands which have not been included in this book, such will be found fully detailed in works on cosmogony. In these seas are men innumerable of all sorts and kinds. In some of the islands they have white skins and faces like Turks, being very handsome; also their young beardless lads go with their faces veiled like women, until such time as the beard grows. There are found in these isles all sorts of perfumes, drugs and aromatics; also mines of precious stones, and men dive for pearls. In these parts too are mountains of magnetic ore, for which reason in their boats they make no use of iron. Further there is great abundance of camphor-trees, sandal-wood, Baqam (or Brazil-wood) and ebony throughout the islands of these seas.
The Sea of Fārs and `Omān and of Baṣrah; (otherwise
called the Persian Gulf). This is an arm of the Indian Sea, its
eastern side is bounded by the province of Fārs as far as Dayr
(the Convent1);
on the western side lies Arabia with the provinces
of Yaman, `Omān and the Desert; to the north are the provinces
of `Irāq and Khūzistān; while to the south is the Indian Sea.
The breadth across (the Persian Gulf), near where it reaches the
Indian Sea, is set down as 170 leagues, and its depth where boats
cross is said to be from 70 to 80 fathoms. From the time when
the sun first enters the Sign of Virgo, and during a period of six
months, the Persian Gulf is very stormy: but after this it becomes
calm. The ebb and flow of the tide from the sea goes up the
Tigris Estuary (Shaṭṭ-al-`Arab) to Dih Maṭārah, which is a village
lying 20 leagues from the coast. [
The Sea of Qulzum1.
Also called the Red Sea, and it is an
arm of the Indian Sea. Its eastern side is bounded by the lands
of Yaman and of the Arabs; on its western side is Barbar and
Abyssinia; to the north lie Qulzum, Yathrib (Medina) and the
Tihāmah province, while to the south is the Indian Sea. In its
length this sea goes along the full length and breadth of the
habitable quarter of the world, and from Qulzum to Yaman it
measures 460 leagues; while its breadth is after the fashion of a
river, or rather of a lake, so that from Qulzum for some leagues
down the sea one side is always visible from the other side. This
part is known as the Tongue of the Sea (Lisān-al-Baḥr). Its
breadth at the beginning is six leagues, but as it goes beyond it
gets broader, until where finally, as aforesaid, it joins the Indian
Sea, it is 60 leagues across; and at some places in between it is
even broader than this, being about equal to 100 leagues across.
[
The Sea of Ḥimyar. This is an arm of the Indian Sea, and it is also known as the Sea of Barbar. Its eastern side is closed by the Indian Sea, to the west lie the lands of Ḥimyar, on the north are the provinces of Barbar and to the south the Mountains of the Moon. This sea is smaller than the two other arms already described of the Indian Sea. Its length going northwards is 160 leagues, and its breadth from east to west is 33 leagues. It contains many islands.
The Third Sea. This is the Sea of Zang3,
and in form it is
like the Indian Sea, but without arms; and it is very stormy, its
waves being more huge even than those of the Indian Sea, and
these waves are known as the mad waves. Its waters are very
dark in colour. Qazvīnī states that from many of the islands
here the north pole cannot be seen, which is to be accounted for
by their lying south of the equator. In books on cosmogony
again, it is stated that, in one of the many islands here, both the
poles are visible at once, and hence this island must lie exactly
upon the equator. Now in this sea there are 1300 and odd islands.
The best known of these is the Island of Wāghlah, and Qazvīnī
reports that in this island once every thirty years a star [
The Isle of Tumult (Jazīrah-aḍ-Ḍawḍā). There are here many districts, and in one is a city all of white stone which shines by night. The island takes its name from this, that great serpents took possession of that city, and the population departed utterly; hence it is now a ruin, but the climate here is the best in all those parts.
Island of Alaq. Here there are men of short stature who are only one ell in height.
Islands of the Dog-heads. These are diverse islands where dog-headed men innumerable live who are cannibals.
In this sea too there are many other wonders, and in its waters ambergris in great pieces is found, some of which exceed a thousand (drachms in weight). The sailors break off pieces of this ambergris with pincers and draw them forth. Also in these islands there may be seen ebony trees, and sandal-wood and teak. The other islands in this sea will be found mentioned in books on cosmogony.
The Fourth Sea. This is the Western Sea, near by which is the Land of Maghrib (the West), also the country of `Abd-al- Mūmin (the Almohad) with Tangiers and other places, all of which are upon this sea. To the north lie twenty islands (form- ing a peninsula) known as Majma`-al-Baḥrayn (the Confluence of the Two Seas), and here is an arm of the Western Sea in propinquity to (this peninsula) which is known as the Straits (of Gibraltar), and so close here is the land on either hand that indeed it is but three leagues across. The length of these Straits is 25 leagues, and on this coast the ebb and flow of the tides from both seas come together. The water of the Western Sea is black, but in the Straits it is clear, and twice a day there is an ebb, and then again a flood tide from each of the two Seas. It is because of this that the land here is called the Confluence of the Two Seas. In the Western Sea and in the Straits (of Gibraltar) are near to a thousand islands (and peninsulas).
Andalusia. This peninsula is the most famous of them all, with (the cities of) Toledo and Seville. It is a long and broad country, resembling in form the Arabian Peninsula, and on one side it is continuous with the continent (of Europe).
Island of Sicily. [
Island of Crete. This too is of about the like circumference.
Island of Cyprus. Its circumference is 80 and odd leagues.
Island of Gold1. This is a large place, and the Greek slaves came from here.
Islands of Eternity (the Fortunate Isles). These lie beyond the islands and peninsulas that have already been mentioned, but beyond them again there are no inhabited or cultivated islands. The longitude of countries is generally reckoned from these islands, but sometimes longitude is counted as from the coast-line of Maghrib, then for the distance from the Fortunate Isles to this coast a deduction has to be made on the former count of one degree. Other islands of this sea will be found described in books on cosmogony: and in these parts are many other wonders, but to detail them all would be too long.
The Fifth Sea. This is the Sea of the Greeks and Franks2. It is surrounded by inhabited lands; and they also name it the Sea of Constantinople. The ancient Greeks called it Pontus and in shape it has the figure as of a bird with a long neck. Its length, from the Straits (of Gibraltar) which adjoin the Western Sea and the Ocean, to Faljah Iskandar (or Alexander’s Cut3) is said to be 1300 leagues; and its greatest breadth is between Alexandria and the Frank Lands, where it measures 260 leagues. The line of Alexander’s Cut, which was in part of the ancient Greek lands, is on that side of this sea which is cut off for the head (of the figure) of the bird: for the waters of the Frank Sea form a sea round the land of ancient Greece. In length this Cut of Alexander stretches for a distance of 102 leagues, going from the Sea of the Franks to the borders of the Sea of the Khazars (the Caspian); while in its greatest breadth it has a width of 20 leagues. The width of Alexander’s Cut in the neighbourhood of the Frank Sea aforesaid is but 200 ells, so that from one side to the other the voice can be heard. Here for the passage of people across they have set a bridge of boats; and the length of this part of the Cut of Alexander is 80 leagues. The Straits (of Gibraltar) which connect the Frank Sea with the Circumambient Ocean in the confines of the land of Toledo (Spain) are in the immediate neighbourhood of the Passage of Hercules1. This is a narrow place measuring 20 leagues across. Some authorities call this Passage of Hercules the Cut of Alexander, and name the whole Frank Sea the Cut of Alexander; but in this they are at fault, and the more exact version is what we have given. In the Sea of the Franks there are likewise 600 islands and of the best known are the following:
Isle of Tinnīs2.
Its circumference is 95 leagues and they
gather good harvests here. The people also weave fine brocades,
and the Greek brocades are mostly from Tinnīs. [
Island of Khāliṣah3. In the History of Maghrib it is said that in this island are wild sheep as numerous as ants and locusts, these are very fat and not excessively shy of men, hence they are hunted down easily—praise be to Him who of His kindness giveth countless good things to His servants according to their deserts. This island lies on the ship’s course from Greece (Rūm) to Alexandria. Other islands of the Frank Sea are de- scribed in books of cosmogony. In this sea the waves are less high, and terrors not so many, as in the other seas, and there are many wonders here also, (which it were too long to describe).
The Sixth Sea. The Sea of Ghālāṭiqūn, which is also called the Varāng Sea4. On its eastern shore are the countries of Ba- land, Badrīyah and Būdah, with parts of the Qirghīz and Varāng lands; to the south lies the Khazar Desert, which is also called the Qipchāq Desert; to the west come the provinces of the Franks, with Qulzum5 and Constantinople, also other places; while to the north is the Circumambient Ocean. In the Varāng Sea are near to 2000 islands, and during the short days (of winter) these islands lie in darkness, for which reason this is also called the Sea of Darkness. The detail of its islands will be found in books of cosmogony, and here are many wondrous things.
The Seventh Sea. This is the Eastern Sea1. To the east thereof lie the lands of Salangā, with the districts of Gog and Magog; to the south are the plains of Kaymāk and the Qirghīz; to the west are the districts of Sanūrīyah and Ansūr with the Land of Darkness; while to the north thereof lie the Islands of Darkness.
Now in the matter of the Circumambient Ocean and the Seven Seas which have just been described, verily they are situated in the way that is set out in the accompanying map: but God alone knows the truth2.
Sea of Khazar (the Caspian). This forms part of none of the
Seven Seas, nor of the Circumambient Ocean (described above).
It takes its name from the city of Khazar which lies on the bank
of the river Itil (Volga), and Ptolemy calls it the Sea of Arqāniyā
(Arcania). You may travel all round it without having [
We now pass on to describe the Lakes which occur in Irān, and in the most known of the neighbouring lands:—this by the favour of God most high.
Lake of Bakhtigān. This is in the province of Fārs3; round its shores lie the districts of Khurramah, Abādah, Khayrah, and Nayrīz. It extends to Ṣāhik of the Kirmān province. The river Kur (Cyrus) flows into it, and round it lie salt pans. The length of this lake is 12 leagues and its breadth is 7 leagues, its circum- ference being nearly 35 leagues.
Dasht-i-Arzin Lake. This is in the province of Fārs, and the waters of this lake are sweet. In spring time these waters are abundant, but in summer they decrease. Most of the fish for Shīrāz comes from here. The circumference of the lake is three leagues, but in the Ṣuwar-al-Aqālīm it is stated to be 30 leagues round.
Lake Mūr. Of Jirrah in the province of Fārs. Its circum- ference is two leagues, and there is much fish to be caught.
Lake Māhalūyah. In the province of Fārs, lying between Shīrāz and Sarvistān. In springtime the flood waters of the Shīrāz streams flow down into it. Its circumference is 12 leagues.
Lake Darkhwīd. A small lake, and the river which flows from it is known as the Barvāt1.
Lake Bāsafhūyah2.
In the Fārs province, and in the district
of Iṣṭakhr. Its length is 7 leagues, [
Lake of the Shīdān Meadow3. In the province of Fārs. In spring during the flood-waters a lake forms in these meadow lands, and its circumference is then about one league; but in the hot weather it dries up entirely.
Lake Chīchast4. In the province of Ādharbāyjān. It is also called the Salt Lake, and the districts of Urmīyah, Ushnūyah, Dih-Khwārqān, Ṭarūj (or Ṭasūj) and Salmās lie along its shore. In its midst is an island, where there is a hill, which is the burial place of the Mongol kings. The rivers Jaghtū, Taghtū, Ṣāfī and Sarāv-Rūd flow into it. The circumference of the lake is 44 leagues.
Lake Arjīsh5. In the province of Armenia. It is very long, but its breadth is such that from the one side the other side is visible. Here there is a fish called Ṭirrīkh, which is very good eating, and which is exported thence to surrounding districts. The circumference of the lake is 80 leagues, and the taste of its water is bitter, being also somewhat salt.
Lake Gūkchah Tangīz. This is on the confines of Ādhar- bāyjān and Armenia. Its waters are wholesome, so that the population of those parts drink the same, these waters not being bitter and salt as is the case with most lakes. Its circumference is 20 leagues.
Lake of the Green Spring (Chashmah-i-Sabz). In Khurā- sān on the Ṭūs frontier. It is one league round, and from it two great streams take their origin, which flow respectively to Nīshā- pūr and to Ṭūs. Each stream is powerful enough to turn more than twenty mills. No boatman can cross this lake, nor can any one plumb its depth. The story of the horse which came forth from this lake, and which then killed king Yazdajird I, surnamed the Bad, is well known1.
Lake of the Spring of the Golden Bough (Zar-Chūbah). This is in the neighbourhood of Ābaskūn. No arrow can be shot across it. Qazvīnī relates that Rāfi`ibn Harthamah2, wishing to know its depth, sent boatmen thither, and they reported that they had plumbed to a depth of near one thousand ells, but had found no bottom.
Lake of Zarah. In Sīstān; its length is 30 leagues, and its breadth six. The rivers Hirmand and Farah flow into it.
The Lake of Khwārazm (the Aral Sea). Although this lake
is not in Īrān, and the scope of the present work is only to set
forth the geography of that land, [
Lake of Tinnīs. This is within the borders of Egypt, and although it thus lies far from Īrān, yet being a very notable lake it seemed preferable to describe it here3. The water of this lake is from the river Nile, and never becomes salt or bitter, nor does it ever get putrid; and as the season gets warmer, its waters increase and become colder. Then when its waters overflow into the salt-marshes they become brackish, and afterwards salt—but God be He exalted and glorified alone knows the truth thereof.
Neighbouring Lands, and Cities. Pekin. The Wall of Gog and Magog: account of Sallām the Interpreter. Samarqand. Siyāvukhsh-Gird. Farghā- nah. Kang Diz. Alexandria, with the Pharos and other remains. Damascus, and the garden of Iram. Raḥbah. Ṭarsūs. Acre. `Ayn Zarbah. Cairo and Egypt: the Fayyūm and Aylah. Hārūniyyah. Al-Muthaqqab. Bāzār Ardashīr. Khaṭṭ Island. Rām Fīrūz. Zīb Khusraw. Sindūsān. Peshavur. Ṣadwah. Aden. Bāb-al-Abwāb. Balanjar. Samandar. Ṣughdabīl. Con- stantinople
BOOK III. Containing a description of cities which, though not within the borders of Īrān, yet, having some of them been built by the rulers of Īrān, and in accordance with the proverb The builder hath length of days, are for the most part without doubt places to be considered worthy of a lasting remembrance. So too it has been spoken in the words of the eloquent,—Verily these buildings declare the intention of the builder, and as a poet has written:
These are our works, and they declare us;
Wherefore, after we are gone, look at our works.
And again it has been said,—The pride of all men is in their buildings and in their sons; and a man’s chief care comes from his house and his neighbour. Wherefore, as a memorial of those noble and great men, and in illustration of the buildings that they have left, I have set out in this present book whatsoever has been gathered from ancient works concerning the four out- lying quarters of Īrān. This being done in trust that the spirits and souls of those great builders, also of those historians, may— if it please God Who alone is excellent—come to take comfort in the sympathy of those who read and hear of these things.
The Eastern Quarter, in which are seven places. [
Pekin (Bakin)1. In the land of China, founded by Alexander the Greek, or as some say by Kay Khusraw, for Alexander did naught in the world but make ruin. It is of the Third Clime, and is a great and mighty town. Its climate is good, being rather cold. It is very populous and produces all kinds of cereals in great excellence.
Wall of Gog and Magog1.
Of the Seventh Clime, in longi-
tude 109° 30', and latitude 73°. It was built by Dhū-l-Qarnayn
(Him of the Two Horns), and it is so recorded for a witness in
the Qurān (ch. XVIII. v. 93) as had been already mentioned. By
some accounts the builder was Dhū-l-Qarnayn the Great, that is
to say Dhū-l-Qarnayn son of Rūmī son of Lanṭī son of Yūnān
son of Tārakh son of Japheth son of the Prophet Noah—on whom
be peace; but according to another account this Dhū-l-Qarnayn
was Alexander son of Darius son of Artaxerxes son of Bahman
son of Isfandiyār. Ibn Khurdādbih, when giving a description of
the Wall, states that the Abbasid Caliph Wāthiq, having seen in
a dream that the Wall had been burst through, despatched in the
year 228 (843) Sallām the Interpreter, with fifty men, provisioned
and mounted, in order to investigate the condition of things.
From Sāmarrah he travelled forth and first presented himself
before the governor of Armenia and Abkhāz, from whence he
passed on to Fīlān Shāh the ruler of Shīrvān, and then on to the
king of Alān, and thence to the Chief of Sarīr who is king of
Bāb-al-Abwāb (Darband), from whom he passed on to Ṭarkhān
Malik king of the Khazar. This Ṭarkhān then sent guides with
them, and after travelling twenty-six days they came to a country
where there was an evil smell, and going on ten days further they
came to a city and a country which had been of old the dwelling
place of Gog and Magog, but it was now gone to ruin. Through
this land they travelled for twenty-seven days more, coming
finally to several castles near a mountain, across the gorges of
which is the Wall. The men in these castles spoke both the
Persian and Arabic languages, and professed Islam, but they
knew nothing concerning the Caliphate, and were much astonished
that there was any Caliph living. They conducted Sallām the
Interpreter before the Wall, and he saw here a mountain, bare
and precipitous, which overhung a river gorge, and upon that
mountain no plant grew. [
Samarqand. Of the Fifth Clime: in longitude 89° 30', and
latitude 37° 30'. Ibn Khurdādbih asserts that it is the most
beautiful and pleasant country of all the earth, and Al Ḥudayn
ibn al-Mundhir ar-Raqāshī when describing this city writes: She
is like heaven for greenness, her palaces are like the stars for
grandeur, her river is like the Milky Way for breadth, her wall
is like the path of the sun (in the ediptic). Samarqand occupies
a plain, in which stand the city and the citadel and a number of
villages; and this plain formerly was enclosed by a wall 50,000
paces in circumference, some part of this wall still existing down
to the present day. In ancient times a mighty castle had been
built in the lands of this plain, but it fell to ruin. Then at the
time when that world-famed hero Karshāsf came hither, a part
of the ruins of this castle was thrown down by an earthquake
and a treasure was discovered. Karshāsf with that treasure re-
built the castle in good condition, but after a time it again fell to
ruin. Then Gushtāsf son of Luhrāsf the Kayānian restored its
buildings, giving the castle strong fortifications and a mightily
deep ditch: and he built a wall to stand between Turkistān and
the plains of that country, as a barrier between Īrān and Tūrān,
the length of which was 20 leagues. Next Alexander the Great
founded in this plain a mighty city whose circumference was
12,000 paces. After his days, in the times of the Kings of the
Tribes (the Parthians) one Samar by name, who was of the race
of the Tubba`s of Yaman, by reason of his enmity against the
people of that land, laid this city in ruins, and razed it (bi-kand)
to the ground level so that no building remained standing; hence
they called it Samar-kand (Samar hath razed it), which the Arabs
in Arabic wrote as Samarqand. The climate of this country is
cold. Its waters come from the river Būy and from the Barash
and Bārmash channels; [
Siyāvukhsh-Gird. This was built by Siyāvukhsh son of Kay-Kāūs the Kayānian, when being angry against his father he went into Turkistān and made a pact with Afrāsiyāb1. The latter then gave the land here in fief to Siyāvukhsh, who built this city.
Farghānah. A province of the Fifth Clime. It was first
settled by Anūshirvān the Just: now in that land he took a man
from ‘each house’ (har khānah), wherefore he called the place
Harkhānah, which name in course of time came to be pronounced
Farghānah. At the present day the capital is Andigān, which
was founded by Qaydū son of Qāshī son of Ogotāy Qaān, and
by Davā son of Burāq son of Yasūn son of Mātakān son of
Chaghatāy Khān. In former times the chief cities of Farghānah
were Kāt2,
Kāsān and Akhsīkath, [
Kang Diz. In the far east and of the Second Clime. It was built by Zuhāk (Ḍaḥḥāk) the son of `Alwān.
Now the Pillars which mark the frontier of Īrān and Tūrān were set up by king Bahrām Gūr3.
The Western Quarter: in which are seven places.
Alexandria. Of the Third Clime: in longitude 51° 20',
latitude 30° 32'. It was built by Alexander son of Dārāb son of
Bahman son of Isfandiyār, and lies on the coast of the Medi-
terranean. It is a frontier city between the people of Islam and
the Franks. There are many Traditions (of the Prophet) con-
cerning the excellencies of this place. Its climate is somewhat
hot; its water is taken from the river Nile and from underground
channels, and the air of the place is so consonant with the water
that, if any of this last be set aside in store and stands for even
two or three years, it will not become corrupt. They are of great
fame here for their woven stuffs, and Alexandrian cloths are
exported thence to all lands. The people for the most part are
of the Shāfi`ite sect. Beside the city, but four leagues distant
from it, is a strong castle, set on a hillock, which overlooks the
sea: and by reason of its height it is known4
as the Minār
(Minaret or Tower) of Alexandria. This is one of the most
famous buildings of the world. In certain books it is stated that
the space on its summit sufficed to support more than 500 houses,
and in some other works it is stated that the number reached to
near a thousand. The height of its wall from foot to summit
was 600 ells: and above this was built a square tower to a height
of 90 ells, on the top of which was a round tower 30 ells high. The
philosopher Apollonius (of Tyana), by command of Alexander,
constructed a mirror seven ells in diameter, which was set up on
the round tower, being thus elevated far above all other buildings;
and by virtue of a talisman when any one gazed into this mirror he
could perceive all that was going on in Constantinople, although
between Alexandria and Constantinople lies the Mediterranean
Sea and a distance of near 300 leagues divides the two cities.
Now from this, much disquietude resulted to the people of the
Franks; wherefore they despatched certain persons who came to
Alexandria in the guise of mendicants, obtaining thus a favour-
able reception. [
Said a certain man of sense: ‘In the confines of Urganj,
A certain fool craved for a treasure,
So he took a mattock and cleft the ground:
But when he got down ten ells deep then he found naught.’
Afterwards the mirror was put back in place, but it had lost its miraculous power. Then they sought for those mendicants, but found that they had fled, and it came to be known that they had done this through deceitful malice. Thus through inauspicious avarice and greed, a mighty work of art was brought to naught: and rightly has it been said:
Greed dishonours the face of dignity,
For the sake of two loaves of bread a skirt full of pearls is often scattered.
In the History of Maghrib it is reported that in order to go
from Alexandria to this Tower an underground passage had been
cut through the rock, 20 ells in height by 8 ells in width. This
led to that side of the castle which more particularly was called
the Minār, and here outside the castle stood a great building,
known as the Mosque of Solomon—upon whom be peace. Of
old this building had 300 marble columns, and at its gate stood
four stone pillars on the summit of which a kiosk had been con-
structed. At the present day only one of these pillars is standing,
and the three which have fallen down have been broken. This
standing pillar has been made into a throne, four square and in
stages, each side measuring six ells, by ten ells in the height, and
on its summit rises a round column, 8 ells in circumference and
near to 30 ells in height. There is also another throne, with a
block of stone, all in one piece, set over it like a roof, being
supported by four columns. Upon this stone they have built a
kiosk, in such fashion that the floor of the kiosk lies 50 ells above
the ground, and this building they call `Amūd-i-Ṣawārim (the
Columns of the Swords1).
It is built of marble, red in colour
with black marks like onyx, but more beautiful. The magni-
ficence (in ancient days) of the other buildings in Alexandria
may be imagined from what has been left. It is related that
when [
Damascus. Of the Fourth Clime: in longitude 60° and in
latitude 38° 30'. In the beginning of time Iram son of Shem son
of Noah—on whom be peace—planted here a garden, which was
called the Garden of Iram, and the fame thereof was celebrated
throughout the world, for its excellence became a proverb.
Then afterwards Shaddād son of `Ād in that same place raised
immense buildings, even like unto heaven and hell, which same
together were called Iram of the Pillars: in reference to which
the verse of the Qurān (LXXXIX. 6 and 7) may be quoted:—Iram
of the pillars whose like hath not been reared in these lands. After
this again Tāraḥ (Terah), who is otherwise called Ādhar, the father
of Abraham the Friend of God—upon whom be peace—and who
was the Vazīr of Nimrod, in these same boundaries founded the
city of Damascus, the buildings of which when these had fallen
to ruin Alexander son of Darius restored. In the times (of Islam)
the Omayyad Caliphs erected here immense buildings, and round
the city lies the (Garden Land of the) Ghawṭah. Its climate is
temperate but rather hot, and with a tendency to damp. Its
water is from the river Baradā, which comes from near Ba`albak,
and is so large a stream that in springtime it is with difficulty to
be forded. From its source to Damascus is 18 leagues, and for
the most part it flows under the shade of trees, being for this
reason unwholesome to drink. The gardens of the Ghawṭah are
along its banks, and they are of the pleasant places of the world.
In the Ṣuwar-al-Aqālīm it is stated that the Ghawṭah extends
for a length of two days’ march, being one day’s march across.
In blame of Damascus it has been said:—Its waters are choked
with mud, its air bestinks, and here the sincere friend urges to
crime. In the Mosque of Damascus are the tombs of many
prophets, and on the threshold of its gate, which is called the
Bāb Jīrūn, the prophet John (the Baptist) was slain, and his head
set up there. [
Raḥbah. Of the Third Clime, and counted as of Syria. Yāqūt asserts that this place is called Qubbat-al-Kūfah2 (the Dome of Kūfah). In the Diary of Malik-Shāh it is described as lying east of the Euphrates, 2000 paces distant from the river bank, the circumference of the city being 5500 paces. It has many fine gardens, the same extending for 4 leagues in length by one league across. Of their fruits are quinces, apples, pears and grapes of good quality; and it is said that many of the fruit trees here will bear twice in one year, but they will not do so the third year.
Ṭarsūs. Of the Third Clime, and counted as of Syria. It
was built by the Caliph `Omar II, son of `Abd-al-`Azīz, [
`Akkah (Acre). Of the Third Clime, and in the bounds of Syria. It was built by King Sapor II.
`Ayn Zarbah. Of the Third Clime, and counted as of Syria. A small town, which, according to the Ṣuwar-al-Aqālīm, the Eunuch Waṣīf built in the days of the Abbasid Caliph Mu`taṣim.
Miṣr (Cairo and Egypt). The city is of the Third Clime, in
longitude 58° 50', latitude 30° 55'. It is stated in the Ṣuwar-al-
Aqālīm that before the time of Islam this country was taken to
be an integral province (of the Roman Empire), but after the days
of Islam it became a kingdom by itself. From the History of
Maghrib it would appear that the capital city here, from the age
of Abraham to the time of Joseph—upon both of whom be peace
—lay on the western side of the Nile, 1 league distant from the
river bank: and it had mighty buildings which the prophet Joseph
and the Governor of Egypt and other rulers of the land had raised.
The place of this city is now hidden in the sand, though some
of its buildings may be seen among the sands, and at the present
time this is known as Old Miṣr. In the time of Moses—peace
be upon him—the Pharaoh of his day, Walīd ibn Muṣ`ab by
name, caused the river Nile to flow nearer to this city, and he
built high palaces, facing their walls with iron and brass, thus to
make these buildings most excellent. Also he made for himself
a kiosk to sit in, and underground from the Nile he brought
four channels thereto of running water. In one of these the
basket cradle of Moses—on whom be peace—was found by the
maidens of Āsiyah the wife of Pharaoh. Now these buildings of
Pharaonic times for the greater part were still standing in the
last days of the Fatimid Caliphs, and the author of the History
of Maghrib states that in the year 512 (1118), when he was in
Egypt, he saw there a house all of carved marble, with the drawings
of the spheres and the stars, and all the Climes, and the likenesses
of animals were to be seen thereon as though in motion, a wonder
to the mind, so that you would have said they lived. Then in the
days of Islam, during the Governorship of `Amr son of `Āṣ, the
capital called Fusṭāṭ was built on the eastern bank of the Nile.
This was of about half the area of Baghdād, but the number of
the inhabitants here was greater than in Baghdād, for in the
capital of Egypt the houses were built of many storeys, with
people living on each storey. `Amr also erected mighty buildings
in Fusṭāṭ, among the rest the Friday Mosque built of marble,
with its shrine (Maqṣūrah) formed of white marble, [
The village of Būṣīr is of the Fayyūm district, where was the Tree of Moses—upon whom be peace1 —and here the last Omayyad Caliph Marwān II, surnamed the Wild-Ass, was slain. The Fayyūm lies 20 leagues distant from Cairo to the westward of the Nile. The city of Aylah, whose people God metamorphosed, the young men into apes and the old men into hogs, stands one hundred leagues distant from Cairo; and the Qurān (ch. VII. vv. 163 to 166) has reference to their history in these verses: And ask them about the city that stood by the sea, when its in- habitants broke the Sabbath: when their fish came to them on their Sabbath day appearing openly, but came not to them on the day when they kept no Sabbath, continuing down to the verse ending with the words, And when they proudly persisted in that which was forbidden, we said to them ‘Become scouted apes.’
The following are the distances from Cairo to the (capital of the western) province: from Cairo to Alexandria 68 leagues, thence to Barqah 245 leagues, thence to Tripoli 188 leagues, and from Tripoli to Qayruwān it is 83 leagues.
Hārūniyyah. Of the Third Clime, and counted as of Syria. In the Ṣuwar-al-Aqālīm it is stated that the Abbasid Caliph Hārūn-ar-Rashīd built it, and it is a medium sized town.
Al-Muthaqqab. In the Ṣuwar-al-Aqālīm this is given as a small fortress which was built by the Omayyad Caliph `Omar II.
Southern Quarter: and here there are eight places mentioned.
Bāzār Ardashīr2. Of Yaman, it is now known as Tamāshā (the Spectacle), and it is of the First Clime, having been built by Bahman son of Isfandiyār.
Khaṭṭ. An island of the Persian Gulf near India. [
Rām Fīrūz. Of the Second Clime, and in Indian territory. King Fīrūz son of Yazdagird son of Bahrām Gūr founded it.
Zīb Khusraw3. Of the Second Clime, and in India. It was founded by king Anūshirvān the Just.
Sindūsān4. Of the Second Clime, and in India on the sea coast. It was founded by Alexander.
Farshāvur (Peshavur). Of the Second Clime, and of the Indian lands. It was founded by Sapor II.
Ṣadwah1. Of the Second Clime; in India, and lying on the sea coast. It was founded by Alexander.
The harbour of `Adan (Aden). Of the First Clime, and in Yaman. It was founded by Anūshirvān the Just.
The Northern Quarter: where five places are mentioned.
Bāb-al-Abwāb. The Arabs name this place Sarīr and by
the Persians it is otherwise called Darband, also sometimes
Fīlān; and the king of this country is known as the Fīlān-Shāh.
The Mongols name this place Timūr Qāpū (the Iron Gate). It
is of the Fifth Clime. Its longitude being 75°, and its latitude
43°. King Luhrāsp the Kayānian founded it, and his grandson
Isfandiyār son of Gushtāsf completed the buildings. It is a city
resembling Tiflīs. But in the days of king Qubād son of Fīrūz,
it having fallen to ruin, he rebuilt its walls of unbaked bricks.
Then Anūshirvān the Just further restored its buildings, surround-
ing them by a mighty wall of stone and cement. A rampart
also extended from the city wall on the one side, down to the
Caspian sea, and out into its waters for a distance of half a
league, or there about. On the other side of the town the
rampart went up along the crest of the Caucasus range, so that
no passage for crossing the same remained open. Some folk
call this rampart the Wall of Gog and Magog, but this is an
attribution of local authority. Most of what Anūshirvān built
still now remains standing. He constructed along the summit of
the city wall aforesaid many towers, [
Balanjar2. This was built by Anūshirvān the Just.
Samandar3. Of the Fifth Clime, standing in a plain of the Khazar Desert, in between Bāb-al-Abwāb and the Volga (Itil) river. It was built by Anūshirvān the Just, and there are many gardens with abundance of grapes. In old times the popu- lation was very great here; now it is less. From Samandar to Bāb-al-Abwāb it is 4 days’ march, and Samandar is now known as the Sarāy of Bātū (Khān). According to another account Samandar lies 2 leagues distant from Sarīr, which latter place of old, in the days of the Chosroes, was the capital of this land, having been founded by Bahrām Chūbīn. Sarīr too is counted as of Bāb-al-Abwāb.
Ṣughdabīl1. Of the Khazar Desert and of the Fifth Clime. It was built by Anūshirvān the Just.
Constantinople. Muslim the son of the Omayyad Caliph `Abd-al-Malik erected buildings here (during his siege of this city), and some traces of these are still standing.
Foreign Countries: to the eastward of Īrān. Badrīyah and other northern cities. Balāsāghūn. Tibet. The Uighūr. Tangut. Churcheh. China and Cathay. Khoten. Khwārazm. Qipchāq. Lands of Gog and Magog. Saq- sīn and Bulghār. Sind. Ṣaghāniyān. Sclavonia and Farkhār. Qirghīz and Salangā. Qandahār and Kābul. Kashmīr and Kaymāk. Māchīn. Trans- oxiana. Makrān. Magyars. Greater India. Yaman, Ḥaḍramawt and Yamāmah
BOOK IV. Containing a description of famous towns and dis- tricts situated in other kingdoms of the inhabited world; namely of those cities which lie outside the kingdom of Īrān, and were not built by the governors thereof. Now the scope of this work is indeed mainly, and as already said, the setting forth of the districts belonging to Īrān; yet of these others it appeared well to give here some notion in form of epitome and synopsis, in order that this book may be the more useful, as containing the sum total of all information; for it is generally agreed that the mighty buildings of the world, and the works of great kings, belong to all ages.
This part therefore is divided into two sections, the Eastern
and the Western, and the division between the two I have made
by drawing a line from the earth’s pole south to the equator. This
line cuts across the Indian Sea, whereby the kingdom of Ceylon
is to the east of this line, while the Arab Peninsula, the Red Sea
and the province of Ḥijāz are to the west of it, the kingdom of
Yaman and the Sea of `Omān being also of the eastern half. Then
the line (going north) after crossing Īrān, [
The Eastern Side. This contains twenty-nine kingdoms and the setting forth of the same will be according to their alpha- betical order.
Badrīyah, Sanūrīyah, Baland, Varāng, Ansūr and Būdah1. These are diverse towns and plains lying beyond the Seventh Clime, between the Eastern Sea and the Sea of Ghālāṭīqūn. Most of their inhabitants are nomad dwellers in the desert. The climate here is extremely cold; and they raise but scanty crops, growing for the most part millet and summer corn, but neither cotton, grapes nor any other fruits can be brought to ripen. These folk have, however, much cattle, seeing that for their food and means of living they depend on cattle breeding. Further the produce of the rock-crystal mines here is very considerable.
Balāsāghūn2. This has a broad territory of the Sixth and Seventh Climes, and the cold here is extreme. Most of the people are nomads of the plain, having much cattle and many horses. The hay-crop is good, but there is little corn grown here.
Tibet (Tabat). A vast kingdom of the Fourth and Fifth Climes. It has many fine cities, and a good climate, producing corn, fruit and grain crops. Of its most famous cities are Khūjān and Naghlashīn3; the last being a very large city, with an immense population.
Tarsiyān and Uighūr4.
These territories include many
distant provinces, of the Sixth and Fifth Climes. [
Bravo! O ye strong hearted Turkish swordsmen
Of the Tātār race from Fay and Kāsān;
You, the king of the Seven Climes
Has sent forth to conquest, taking you out of the ranks of the unfortunate3.
Tangut. This region comprises many kingdoms which are of the Fifth Clime. The Mongols call the country Qāshīn. Its best known towns are Yarāqiyā and Qarātāsh4, both of which are cities of a certain size, with numerous buildings. Around lie ex- tensive lands, having a numberless population of nomads.
Jurjat5. In the works of Rashīd-ad-Dīn this is mentioned as a long and broad kingdom which adjoins Cathay. They count it as possessing a population of 70,000 men.
China (Chīn). The Mongols call this land Manzī, while the Arabs name it Ṣīn. It is a broad wide kingdom stretching over the Second, Third and Fourth Climes. Its capital is called Machīn6, and it lies in the Second Clime, in longitude 125°, and latitude 22°. The population for the most part worship idols (being Manicheans) of the sect of Mānī the Painter. Among them live Moslems and Christians, but there are no Jews, and by reason of the fewness of the Moslems and the greater number of the idolaters, the preponderance in power is theirs. In this king- dom all arts and crafts have reached a high degree of perfection, and throughout the land are numerous great cities.
Cathay (Khitāy). This is a great kingdom of the Fourth and
Fifth Climes. Its capital [
Khutan (Khoten). A great kingdom of the Fourth and Fifth Climes. Of its celebrated towns are Kāshghar, New Talās2, Ṣay- ram and Yārkand, and further there are many other provinces with numerous dependencies.
Khwārazm and Jurjānīyah. This region comprises many provinces, lying in the Fifth Clime; and it is of the cold region. Its capital is Urganj, now generally known as Khwārazm (City). In former days it was first known as Fīl, then as Manṣūrah, and then it came to be called Urganj. The city of Kāt was known also as Jurjānīyah. Other towns are Hazārasp, Darghān, Khāsh, Ardakhushmīthan, Sāfardaz, Nūzvār, Kardurānkhās, the Village of Farātakīn (or Qarātakīn), Mādhmīnīyah, Muzdākhaghān and Ghardamān. Khīvaq (Khīvah), which was the birth place of the Shaykh Najm-ad-Dīn Kubrā, is a small provincial town; and this province has besides many other districts and numerous cities. The lands produce corn crops and excellent fruit, and in particular melons grow here exceedingly well.
Dasht-i-Qipchāq. This is of the Sixth Clime, its plains bear
excellent pasturage, stretching to the north of the Caspian Sea,
but there are here few houses or towns or villages. Most of the
inhabitants are nomads of the plain. Its most celebrated town is
Khazar, from which same the plain takes its name, being also
called Dasht (or Desert of) Khazar; then there is Burṭās3,
also
Suvār, Muḥtāl, Sarāy Bātū and Sarīr, which last is one month’s
journey away. Most of the lands here are swamps (Hāmūn).
The crops consist of wheat in small quantity, but millet and other
summer cereals are good both in quality and quantity. [
Lands of Gog and Magog. These are of the Seventh Clime, and the folk bearing these names were from here. Towns there are few, but plains and districts are many, lying between the Sea of China and the Eastern Sea. The most notable place here is the fortress, where the guards of the Wall have their abode2; and these men are Moslems.
Saqsīn and Bulghār3. Two small cities of the Sixth Clime, to which belong many districts and plains. Most of the furs in trade are brought from here.
Sind. This is a great kingdom of the Second Clime. Its great cities are Manṣūrah, Multān, Lahore, Sulṭāniyyah (Hayā- ṭalah or Hayāṭiyah), Farshāvur (Peshavur) Malikfūr, Quṣdār, Nahrawālah, and Quss, where there is much vegetation and the sugar-cane, also stuffs for clothes in great quantity. Next come Nārdīn and Qāmuhul, where the banana and the cocoa nut grow abundantly, and it lies on the frontier of India. Further Qaṣrān, Qallarī, Qandābīl, Qīqān, Qawj, Qanbulī and Qal`ah Nahsam, where there is the greatest idol temple of India4. Also there are other districts, cities and plains without number. The people of Sind for the most part speak the Persian language. The climate is hot, and grain crops of all sorts are grown.
Ṣaghāniyān. A great and broad kingdom of the Third and Fourth Climes. It has numberless provinces and produces all kinds of crops. The people here are for the most part Moslems.
Saqlāb (Sclavonia). A broad kingdom of the Seventh Clime.
Its most famous town is Madīnat-al-Fīl (the Elephant City),
which is also called Qaṭānīyah5,
[
Farkhār. This is a kingdom of the Sixth Clime, having many provinces and dependencies. The people here are famous for the great beauty both of their figures and faces, and the following verses have reference to this1.
All my suffering is from those fair ones of Farkhār,
And none the less must I bear with it:
For the fault lies not with those fair ones,
As I will explain, if thou canst bear to hear:
This trouble and mischief, O Lord, is from Thee,
Though no one yet has dared to say so;
Those lips and teeth of Turkish moon-faced maidens,
Thou shouldst not have created so fair to see;
For certes the longing for their lips and teeth
Makes us remorsefully gnaw with our teeth our own lips.
Qirghīz and Salangā. A kingdom of the Sixth Clime, the capital of which is Qarāqurum, built by Ogotāy Qāan2. Its climate is very cold, water is plentiful but crops are scanty, its chief produce being summer-wheat. The pasture-lands are very rich, stretching as far as the river Onon, which was the original Yūrt (or Camp) of Changhīz Khan3. Now in Qarāqurum Ogotāy Qāan constructed many fine buildings, such as kiosks, palaces and the like, for this was the place where he resided, and hence it took the name of Qarshī (the Palace).
Qandahār. A great kingdom of the Third and Fourth
Climes. Its greatest cities are Qarā Khālūk and Walīshālūk,
which is the capital; also Zāyidandān and Aghnāb1.
There are
further numerous other towns, districts and plains, all of which
produce corn [
Kābul. A kingdom of the Third Clime, possessing many towns and lands. The sugar-cane grows here, with some other crops of the hot lands.
Kashmīr. This is a great city of the Third Clime; having a mighty wall and ditch. Many provinces of the Third and Fourth Climes are of its dependencies. The population, since they have mixed with the Turk tribes, are very handsome, being in fact celebrated for their good looks and fine figures.
Kaymāk2 This country is of the Sixth Clime, and comprises provinces and plains: also farmsteads. There is much cultivation of the land, though towns and villages are few. It is a cold country, the raising of crops will succeed, also horses and cattle are plentiful.
Māchīn. A great and extensive kingdom which the Mongols know as Nankiyās. It is of the First and Second Climes, and its capital is the city of Khansāy, which some call Siyāhān3. They say that in all the habitable world there is no greater city than this, or at any rate that in the regions of the east there is no larger town. There is a lake in the midst of the city, six leagues in circumference, and the houses of the town stand round its borders. The climate is warm, and both the sugar-cane and the rice crop produce abundantly; but dates are so rare, and difficult to come by, that one Mann-weight of these is bartered for ten Manns of sugar. Most of their meat is fish, but beef is eaten, and the mutton is excellent, being exceedingly expensive. The population is so great that they have several thousand—some say ten thousand—watchmen and guards to oversee the city. Most of the people are Infidels, yet the Moslems though so few in number have the power in their hands.
Transoxiana. A great kingdom of the Fourth Clime.
Of its famous cities are Bukhārā and Samarqand of Sughd,
Khujand, Zarnūq and Sawrān4,
Kishsh, Badakhshān, Tirmid,
Ashnās1
and Baykand, Ushrūsanah, Ūzkand, Utrār, Chāch
(Tashkend), Isbījāb, Nasaf, Nakhshab, Ṭarāz, Fārāb, Fanākat,
Saghnāk and Kant2.
It is stated in the Ṣuwar-al-Aqālīm that
by report [
Makrān. A great country of the Second Clime, and it is 12 days’ journey across. The capital is Fannazbūr, lying in longitude 93° and in latitude 24°. The climate is hot, and water is from a river. Other towns of this kingdom are Tīz, Manṣūrah3 and Fahl-Fahrah. There is much cultivation here, with many farms, and villages without number.
Maks and Bāshqarūd4. These are two large towns of the Seventh Clime, having many lands and pastures belonging to them: most of their inhabitants are nomads of the plain.
Hind (India). This comprises many kingdoms by land and
(numerous islands of the) sea. They have mostly a hot climate,
and by reason of the broad area occupied by all these, it is said
that India covers one sixth of the habitable earth5.
In this work
we can only name a few of the most celebrated places here, and
as it is well known, the number of people and troops in those king-
doms is quite beyond count. Its greatest city is Delhi in the
Second Clime, this being now the capital of the Sultan. A city
of almost equal size is Duwīrqīr6
(Dawlatābād) of the Second
Clime. Then there is Zaytūn and Ceylon of the First Clime;
also Sūmnāth and Qanawj of the Second Clime; Cambay and
Gujarāt, Murgh and Māh likewise of the Second Clime. Next
come Coromandel (Ma`bar), Maqdashū, Malabar, Talang and
Qal`ah, this city lying on the frontier of China, where there are
the famous tin smitheries, for which reason tin is often called
Qala`ī1.
Lastly come Arūr and Tānah2,
with other celebrated
towns and districts, beyond count or compare. Now many, as
for instance Malabar, [
Yaman. A great kingdom in the hot country, being of the
First and Second Climes. Its capital at the present day is the
city of Ta`izz, but of old it was Ṣan`ā, and in Ṣan`ā the climate
was so equitable that one might spend all four seasons in this
one place. The Castle of Ghumdān, one of the most magni-
ficent and beautiful buildings in the whole world, stood in
Ṣan`ā, and over its portal there were written these words:
Verily we have told him: ‘For ever shalt thou not stay,’ nay
rather we have told him: ‘Go forth in this very hour.’ It
was the Caliph Othman who ruined this building. In Ṣan`ā too
was the church known as Kanīsah Qullays which Abrahah ibn
Ṣabāḥ built. It was one of the mightiest buildings of the earth,
so that the mind was amazed by its grandeur and splendour; but
the first of the Abbasid Caliphs Saffāḥ threw it down in ruin,
carrying off therefrom its countless treasures. The city of `Aden
is only a provincial town, but being a harbour it is much renowned.
Ḥaḍramawt too is a small city, and the Prophet Hūd—upon
whom be peace—is buried here. `Omān is the largest town in
this district and the Sea of `Oman takes its name therefrom. The
land of Mahrah is a great district here, and its largest city is
called Shiḥr. The kingdom of Yamāmah according to some
books is included in Yaman, others count it as of Ḥijāz. In the
capital, and in some of the villages of Yamāmah, the Demons
built a lofty palace for king Solomon—upon whom be peace—
and it was constructed of huge stones; further (at one time) this
city of Yamāmah was his capital. Other towns in Yamāmah
are Falj, where Qays `Aylān lived; Zarnūq, Qarqarī and Arūn.
In Yaman there are also other famous places, as for instance
Fīlān, Farghān, Qālimah and Qalyāthah1.
Further Ibn Khur-
dādbih states that the Abandoned Well, and the Lofty Towers
which are both mentioned in the Qurān (ch. XXII. v. 44) were in
the territory of Al-Bawn, which is of the kingdom of Yaman.
The wondrous stories that are told about the fortifications of the
Lofty Towers need not to be repeated. But in the Qurān (ch. IV.
v. 80) an allusion is made to these buildings; [