Nuzhat al-Qulūb - The Geographical Part of the Nuzhat-al-Qulub

The District of Dārābjird. Jahrum and Juvaym of Abū Aḥmad: the Castle of Shamīrān. Fasā with its districts. The District of Shāpūr Khūrah. Kāzirūn: the three original villages: stuffs made here. Bishāvur (Shāpūr): the colossal black statue. The Shāpūr Country. The Jīlūyah hills. Jirrah and Gunbad Mallaghān. Khisht and Kumārij. Khullār and its mill-stones. Ghundijān or Dasht Bārīn. Nawbanjān and Shi`b Bavvān, one of the four Earthly Paradises: the White Castle. Qubād Khūrah District. Arrajān and the Thakān bridge. Rīṣahr and its linen. Janābā and Mahrūbān. Sīnīz. The Sixteen Castles of Fārs. The Meadow-Lands. Qays, Baḥrayn and other Islands of the Persian Gulf

The Dārābjird District. This takes its name from Dārāb son of Bahman son of Isfandiyār the Kayānian; and formerly the province which is known now under the name of Shabān- kārah, and which will be described later in a chapter by itself, occupied the greater part of this district, but we speak here of that part thereof which is still counted as of Fārs. []

Jahrum. A medium-sized town, founded by Bahman ibn Isfandiyār. It has many dependencies, with a hot climate, grow- ing crops of corn, fruit and cotton. Its water is from both run- ning streams and underground channels. There is in these parts a very strong castle called Khūrshah.

Juvaym of Abū Aḥmad. This is of the Irāhistān district, which (as already said) forms part of the district of Ardashīr Khūrah. The Jūmah (or home-lands) thereof are known as the Kūrah Rūd (River-district)¹. The climate is hot, and the water is from underground channels and wells. The crops are corn and dates. There is here a castle called Shamīrān. The people go armed, being footpads, thieves and highwaymen.

Fasā. Of the Third Clime, in longitude 83° 55', and latitude 20°. It was founded by Fasā son of Ṭahmūrath the Demon- binder; after it had fallen to ruin king Gushtāsf the Kayānian began to restore its buildings; which same his grandson Bahrām ibn Isfandiyār completed, giving it the name of Sāsān. It had at first been triangular in plan; but in the days of Ḥajjāj (the Omayyad viceroy of `Irāq) his lieutenant governor Āzādmard by his orders altered this plan, restoring its buildings. Afterwards it was ruined by the Shabānkārah tribes, and then again restored by the Atabeg Chāulī. It was a very large city, with numerous dependencies. Its water is from underground channels, and it has no running streams. The lands grow the fruits of both the hot and cold regions; and among its dependencies are Shaqq Rūdbār and Mīshkānāt, of the hot region, producing desert wheat. Also there are many other dependencies, to mention all of which would be too long.

The District of Shāpūr Khūrah. This district takes its name from Shāpūr son of Ardashīr Bābakān. Originally its chief town was Bishāvur, but at the present time it is Kāzirūn.

Kāzirūn. Of the Third Clime; in longitude 87°, and latitude 29° 19'. It consisted originally of three villages, called Nawdar, Darīst and Rāhbān, all founded by Ṭahmūrath the Demon- binder. [] When Shāpūr son of Ardashīr Bābakān built the town of Bishāvur he made these villages a dependency thereof, but later Fīrūz great-grandson of Bahrām Gūr formed them into a city, and his son Qubād added to the buildings. Thus Kāzirūn be- came a great city, but since originally it had been three villages, so at the present day it forms three distinct wards, each with its magnificent and mighty palace, and each is like a castle. The climate of Kāzirūn is hot, and the water is from three different underground water-channels, each bearing the name of one of the three original villages. Further they rely much on rain water. Oranges, shaddocks, lemons and all the fruits of the hot regions grow here, and there is a special kind of date, known as Jīlān, the equal of which is found nowhere else in the world. Much cotton is produced here, and the muslin stuffs of Kāzirūn are exported to all parts, being of many kinds; and some linen too is made. Most of these Kāzirūn stuffs, unless they be washed in the waters of the Rāhbān watercourse, do not retain their fresh- ness. The people are of the Shāfi`ī sect. There is seen here the shrine of the Shaykh Abū Isḥaq Kāzirūnī, which same has become a sanctuary. Further there are many other tombs of notable men here, the enumeration of which would be too long; and many villages are of the dependencies of Kāzirūn.

Bishāvur¹. Of the Third Clime; in longitude 86° 15', and latitude 20°. It was founded by Ṭahmūrath the Demon-binder and named Dīndilā. Alexander the Great, when he conquered Fars, laid it in ruins, and king Shāpūr I rebuilt it all anew, calling it Bishāpūr after his own name; but originally this was Banā-i-Shāpūr (Sapor`s building), which in the lapse of time and by the coalescing of the letters became Bishāvur. The climate is hot; for to the north the city is shut in, by which cause too it is damp. Its water is from the great river which has taken its name from the town. The crops grown here are corn, rice, dates, oranges, shaddocks, lemons, with all other kinds of good fruits of the hot region, which same sell here for a small price; so that those coming and going are perpetually eating of the same. Various sweet-smelling flowers too abound, such as water-lilies, violets, jasmine and narcissus; and silk too is produced. The people are of the Shāfi`ite sect. Some distance outside Bishāvur there is seen the statue of a man in black stone, standing in a temple, and above life size. [] Some say it is a talisman, others assert that this was once a living man whom God Most High turned to stone. The kings in those parts hold it in much honour and veneration, making visitations to the same, and anointing it with unguents¹.

Anbūrān and Bāsht Qūṭā². Anbūrān is a small town of the Nawbanjān district: and some few persons of distinction are natives thereof. Its climate is temperate, and it has running streams. Bāsht Qūṭā is a district lying in the mountains, and of the cold region. It has corn crops and some fruit.

Bilād Shāpūr (the Shāpūr Country)³. This includes various regions lying between Fārs and Khūzistān. Its climate is tem- perate, but tending to be hot. It has many running streams; but for the most part now the land is in ruin.

Tīr Murdān and Jūyīgān⁴. Two districts, with some large villages that lie on broken ground among clefts and gullies. The climate here is cold, but tends to be temperate. There are many trees, and all kinds of fruit—especially nuts—the same being most plentiful. The greater part of their crops depend on the rains, but some are artificially irrigated. There is much game found in these parts. The people here are warlike and nocturnal robbers: so much so that in a single night they will go a distance of twenty leagues.

Jabal Jīlūyah⁵. These mountains comprise many hill dis- tricts, and numerous dependencies which border on Luristān. The climate is cold, water is plentiful, and trees without number. There is much fruit grown, and the hunting-grounds are excellent. The people here are Shāfi`ites and Sunnīs.

Jirrah¹. A small town, the name being commonly pronounced Girrah. It lies below (south of) Shīrāz, while (the Dam of) Band-i- Amīr, one of the mightiest constructions in the world, lies above (north of) Shīrāz: hence a poet has said,

Seek not conquest from the region of Shīrāz,
For below it lies Girrah (for Girih, ‘a knot’), and above it stands Band (‘a barrier’).

The climate here is warm, and the water is from the river that bears the name of this town. The crops are corn and dates. The people here are warlike, and [] many districts are of its dependencies.

Gunbad Mallaghān². A small town, in the neighbourhood of which is the bridge of Pul Būlū (or Lūlū). Its climate is hot, but there are numerous running streams. Its crops are corn and fruit, with many sweet-scented flowers. There is a strong castle here.

Khisht and Kumārij. Two towns lying among the hills, but of the hot region. They have running streams; but except for dates no other fruit is grown. The corn crops are in part watered by the rains, in part by irrigation. The people here carry arms, also they are thieves and robbers.

Khullār³. A large village, where there is a small spring. The mill-stones used in most parts of the Fārs province come from here, and the place produces nothing else but these; the curious matter being that, by reason of the lack of water here, they have themselves no mills, and to grind their corn have to go elsewhere.

Khumāyijān and Dih `Alī⁴. Two districts having a cold climate, where nut trees grow, also pomegranates; and of their produce, too, is much honey. There are hunting-grounds, and the people are warlike, some also being muleteers.

Sīmsakht⁵. A district of the cold region, having many trees and running streams. The crops are corn and some little fruit.

Charām and Bāzrang⁶. Two districts lying between Zīr (or Zīz) and Sumayram of Luristān. The climate is very cold. The water is from streams coming down from mountains that in most seasons are never free from snow. The roads are difficult and dangerous, but water is abundant. Game also is in plenty, and the people there are for the most part hunters.

Ghundijān¹. This commonly is known as Dasht Bārīn. It is a small town of the hot region, with one small spring, the water of its wells being brackish. The crops depend on the rains. The people here are for the most part shoemakers and weavers: though some few persons of eminence have indeed come from here.

Nawbanjān and Shi`b Bavvān []. Nawbanjān is com- monly pronounced Nawbandagān, and it is of the Third Clime, in longitude 86° 15' and latitude 20°. It was founded by Sapor I, and was a large town; but at the time of the troubles caused by the rebellion of Abū Sa`d of Kāzirūn² it became ruined and a place of desolation for beasts of prey. Subsequently the Atabeg Chāulī restored its buildings. The climate is warm, and all kinds of fruit grow here, also sweet-smelling flowers. The people are pious and given to religious observances. The water is from the neighbouring hills. Shi`b Bavvān is one of the most famous pleasances of the world. It is a valley lying between two hills, 3½ leagues long by 1½ leagues broad, all full of trees, bearing divers kinds of fruit. The climate is most pleasant and tem- perate. There are many villages, and through the valley runs a large river; further the summits of the hills on either side are hardly ever free from snow. By reason of the abundance of the trees the ground in this plain never has the sun shining on it; it abounds in gushing springs, and their water is very pure. The learned say that there are four Earthly Paradises, namely the Ghawṭah of Damascus, the Valley of Sughd round Samarqand, Shi`b Bavvān and the meadow-land of Shīdān; farther, of these four, two, namely Shi`b Bavvān and the Shīdān meadow-land, lie within the limits of the Fārs province. Many other places and districts belong to Nawbanjān, some being of the plain, some of the hills. Qal`ah-i-Safīd (the White Castle) lies less than a league`s distance from this town; and in the districts of Nawbanjān there are limitless hunting-grounds.

The Qubād Khūrah District. This district was named from Qubād, father of Anūshirvān the Just; and here there are three cities.

Arrajān¹. The name is now commonly pronounced Arra- ghān; it is of the Third Clime, in longitude 86° 20' and latitude 20° 15'. It was founded by king Qubād the Sassanian, and at first was a large town with many districts and dependencies. In the time of the incursions of the Assassins—whom may God curse —the population came to be entirely ruined. The climate is very hot, and the water is from the Ṭāb river, which traverses the dis- trict. A bridge has been built over this river, which is named Pūl-i-Thakān. The soil here gives [] abundant crops, and all kinds of fruit are grown; dates are plentiful and a most excellent sort of pomegranate called Malīsī is found here: also sweet- smelling flowers. In the neighbourhood are many castles, such as Qal`ah Ṭayghūr and Diz-Kilāt, and the ruin of the town is from the Assassins who used to be in garrison there. The people of Arrajān are for the most part pious folk, and occupied with their own affairs. The (village of) Bustānak lies (near), on the frontier of Fārs and Khūzistān. Of holy men, who are buried in Arrajān, is Abū-l-Ḥasan Shīrāzī, commonly called Pursah-dār (Poverty stricken).

Rīṣahr. The Persians call it Rīshahr, and it is also known as Rabiyān². It was founded by Luhrāsp the Kayanian, and Sapor I restored its buildings. It is a medium-sized town, standing on the shore of the Persian Gulf; the climate is very hot and damp. In summer the people cover themselves with acorn flour, otherwise, by reason of excessive sweating, (the skin) becomes sore³. The crops here are dates, and the Rīshahr linen (is famous). Most of the inhabitants are occupied in the sea trade; but they excel in nothing, and indeed are more stupid than most other folk. The fort of Diz-Kilāt lies one league distant from Rīshahr; and in summer most of the people go to this or to some other of these castles by reason of the better air.

Khabs⁴, Furzuk and Hindījān. These places lie between Arrajān and the neighbouring districts of Fārs, and Khabs is a custom-house. In climate all these places resemble Arrajān.

Janābā¹. Founded by Janābā son of Ṭahmūrath the Demon- binder. The Persians call it Ganbah, which means ‘stinking- water,’ and of a place that has a name like this there is no need for further description. Four villages are of its dependencies, and it is a town standing on the sea-shore.

Jallādjān, Nīv and Dayr². These are districts [] of Arra- jān, and in climate and produce entirely resemble the same, so that there is no need of repetition. A number of places are of their dependencies.

Mahrūbān. The Persians call it Māhīrūyān, and it is a city standing on the sea-shore, so that the waves of the sea beat against it. There are some few places of its dependencies. The climate is hot and damp. It is a port of call for all who go by sea from Fārs to Khūzistān, and those who travel from Baṣrah to Khūzi- stān also touch here. No fruit is grown, except dates, and for the most part their victualling is from the sea. Sheep here are few, but goats are numerous, and the author of the Fārs Nāmah states that they get from a single she-goat eighty Raṭls (pints) of milk³. Linseed here is most abundant, being much exported to other places.

Sīnīz⁴. A small town on the sea-shore, with a little fort. There are many palm-trees, for the climate is hot and damp. Linen is produced, also oil for lamps; but the linen here has no wear in it. The people are quiet folk, but stupid.

In the Five Districts aforementioned there are various Castles and Meadow-lands, the most notable of which we now proceed to describe.

Of Castles there are at the present day but sixteen well-known and famous castles in the kingdom of Fārs, though of old there were above seventy. For when the people of Fārs revolted against the commands of the Saljūqs, they sent the Atabeg Chāulī to conquer the land, and he by force of arms laid most of those castles in ruins, while some few that had submitted he left standing, but setting a garrison therein. Of all these castles, therefore, the following are those best known:

Isfīd Diz (the White Castle⁵) In the Fārs Nāmah it is stated that this fortress was garrisoned and peopled from most ancient times, but by reason of its very antiquity the name of its builder is unknown. Then for many years it remained a ruin, till in the early Saljūq days Abū Naṣr of Tīr Murdān [] restored its fortifications. This fortress occupies a hill summit, the circuit of which is twenty leagues, and it stands isolated from any other range. Only one road leads up to it, and on the mountain-top is a plain of fine soil, with excellent springs of water, and fruit gardens, with some little arable land. The wells go very deep in the ground, and give excellent water. The climate is equable and fine. At the foot of the great fortress there is a small castle called Nishnāk, which is well fortified. In the neighbourhood of this mountain there are spacious plains, and good hunting-grounds. The only weakness of this fortress is that (from its size) it can only be held by a great army of men, and that when any king with a well-appointed army attacks it, forthwith it must succumb to him¹.

Iṣṭakhr Castle. According to the Fārs Nāmah there is no castle throughout the land older than this, and every device which a castle can have to strengthen it, this castle possesses. Anciently it was known as Sih Gunbadān (Three Domes), for round and about it stand other two castles, called Shikastah and Shankavān². At this the main castle there is a cleft going deep into the ground, through which the rain water passed, falling out at the further end into the plain. `Aḍud-ad-Dawlah built a dam at this lower end, and with cement and stones and mortar turned the cleft here into a tank, to which a stairway led down, of seventeen steps. By means of canvas soaked in bitumen and wax, he rendered the cement so impervious that no water could percolate through, and so great a quantity of water used to be collected here, that had a thousand men used of the same for a whole year, its level would not have dropped one single step. The tank further was set with columns, and roofed over, so that the water was undisturbed by changes of the weather; and besides this there were other cisterns lying beyond and about. The climate of this castle is temperate, and the only weakness of the place is that its fortifi- cations are not quite strong enough to resist an attack.

Iṣṭakhr Yār Castle (the Companion of Iṣṭakhr)³. This is strongly fortified, and it is thus called because, in its strength, it is the companion of Iṣṭakhr. Its climate is good, and it possesses likewise a cistern, also there are in its circuit springs of living water. []

Abādah Castle¹. This is less strong than some other castles, and less spacious. Its climate is temperate, and it has water- cisterns; also a place of arms.

Diz² Abraj. This castle stands on a hill above Abraj. On the one side it is well fortified, but on the other side not; thus on this side Abraj may be taken by assault. There is running water from the hill, which flows through the castle.

Tabr Castle³. This lies three leagues from Shīrāz to the south-east, and stands on a hill that is unconnected with any neighbouring range. There is a small spring here up above, and also under the hill another source. All round this hill for a day`s journey there are neither inhabitants, nor fodder for beasts, and hence it is hardly possible to lay siege to the castle. At this present time it is in the hands of the Amīr Jalāl-ad-Dīn Ṭīb Shāh, who is a Turkoman. Its climate is rather hot.

Tīr-i-Khudā (the Castle of God`s Arrow). This stands near Khabr⁴ on an extremely high mountain, for which reason it has this name. Its climate is cold, but inclines to be temperate, and it has water cisterns.

Khurshah Castle⁵. This stands on a high mountain-top, five leagues from Jahrum. It has a temperate climate, inclined to be hot. Khurshah is the name (of the man) who was made governor of this province by the brother of the (celebrated Omay- yad viceroy) Ḥajjāj, and who built it. Relying on the strength of this fortress, and on the wealth that by his good fortune he had acquired, he rebelled. Wherefore, subsequently, it was never allowed that any (provincial) governor should be master of this castle, lest the pride of possession, cozening the presumption due to these strong fortifications, should be more than a man`s brain could stand, and thus he be led into rebellion.

Khurramah Castle. This is a strong place in the midst of cultivated lands. It has a temperate climate, and its water is from cisterns.

Khwādān Castle⁶. A strong fortress in the neighbourhood of Fasā. Its climate is temperate, but rather hot, and it has water cisterns.

Khuvār Castle¹. A well-fortified castle, with a cold climate, and water from wells. []

Ramzavān Castle. Near Ghundījān, and a very strong place. The climate is hot; it has water in cisterns.

Sahārah Castle². This stands on a high mountain four leagues from Fīrūzābād. It was built by the Mas`ūdī (Kurds). It has a pleasant climate, and cold water. Much corn can be stored here, and it cannot be taken by assault.

Shamīrān Castle³. A strong place near Juvaym of Abū Aḥmad. Its climate is hot; but there are water cisterns.

Kārzīn Castle. This is less strong than many other castles. It is of the hot region, and stands on the banks of the Thakān river, from the bed of which a syphon has been laid up to the castle hill.

Gunbad Mallaghān Castle. In the Arrajān district; and so strongly fortified that one man could hold it. Its climate is temperate, and it has water cisterns. Corn may be kept here for many years free from blight.

Now besides the above-mentioned castles, in the district of Irāhistān every village is like a fortress, and each is in itself a strong castle, some standing on rocky hills, and some on hillocks of earth, and some in the plain; and all these are of the hot region.

Meadow-Lands. In the province of Fārs there are many meadow-lands, and those that are most extensive, and most famous, we shall now describe.

The Āvard or Ūrd Meadows. Now known as Kūshk-i- Zard. These are excellent pasture-lands, broad and long, with many springs. The climate is cold, and the grass here is very fattening. There are many large villages, as for instance Dih Bajjah, Ṭamīrkhān⁴ and others. These meadow-lands are ten leagues in length by five in breadth.

The Meadows of Dasht Rūn. Excellent pastures, with running streams and abundant springs. The climate is cold. These meadows are somewhat less in extent than those of Āvard. The Rubāṭ (or Guard house) of Ṣalāḥ-ad-Dīn, and the Shahriyār Bridge, lie in these meadows. The grass is most fattening to cattle. The meadows measure seven leagues by five in ex- tent. []

The Meadows of Dasht Arzhan. These lie round a lake which is situated in the Plain of the Wild Almond (Dasht-i-Ar- zhan). In its neighbourhood is a forest, where there are fierce lions. The story of the Caliph `Alī and Salmān-i-Fārsī in the Dasht-i-Arzhan Plain is well known¹, and it relates to this very place. These meadows are two leagues long by one across.

The Sīkān Meadows². These are between Shīrāz and Kavār. In their midst there is standing water, and a forest lies near by, where there are lions. The length of these meadow- lands is five leagues and their breadth three.

The Bahman Meadows. These are near Juvaym of Abū Aḥmad, and they are one league across either way.

The Bīd and Mashkān Meadows³. These are in the neigh- bourhood of Basīrā, but of the cold region. They are seven leagues in length by three in breadth, and there is here excellent pasture.

The Meadows of Bayḍā. Lying three leagues from Bayḍā; the pasture here is abundant and very rich. These meadows are ten leagues in length and breadth, with many good springs.

The Shīdān Meadows⁴. The excellent pasture here is hardly to be equalled elsewhere. All round lie cultivated lands, with numerous springs and running streams. In seasons of flood there is a lake in the centre part, but this dries up in the hot weather. These meadows are ten leagues long, by the like across, and the grass is very rich. Now in regard to this meadow-land, and the Ghawṭah of Damascus, and Sughd of Samarqand, and Shi`b Bavvān, the learned have, as already stated, (named these the Four Earthly Paradises).

The Qālī Meadow. This lies on the (Purvāb, or) Pulvār river, and is a pleasant place; but in summer its grass does not suit cattle, and on the other hand in winter there is lack of pas- turage. It is three leagues in length by one in breadth.

The Kālān Meadow. This lies in the neighbourhood of the Tomb of Solomon`s Mother⁵. It is four leagues in length, but much less in breadth. The Tomb aforesaid is a square built house of stone, and in the Fārs Nāmah [] it is said that no one dare look inside this, for fear lest he should become blind, but we have never seen anyone who had made the experiment.

The Kāmfīrūz Meadow. This is a very green meadow on the banks of the river Kur. There is here a forest, which is a lair for lions. The pasturage is excellent, but through fear of the lions cattle are seldom sent here.

The Kamīn, Purvāb and Khāstijān Meadows. These are not known as true meadow-lands, but the grass here is very fat- tening for cattle, and better than in the surrounding places.

The Narcissus Meadows. Near Kāzirūn and Jirrah, and of the neighbourhood of Khān Āzādmard. These are three leagues long and two broad, and the grass here is all full of self-sown narcissus, so that all the plain is covered with the flowers. It is most famous, and such is the sweet smell of the narcissus in these meadows, that while it goes to the head, the heart is rejoiced thereby.

Now besides these Meadow-lands, above-mentioned, there are many others, of smaller extent in various parts, but to mention them all would be too long.

The Persian Gulf. The islands which are found in the Persian Gulf, lying between the frontier of Sind and `Omān, are counted as of the province of Fārs, and the largest of these in matter both of population and of wealth are the islands of Qays (or Qaysh) and Baḥrayn. In former times the rulers of Qays counted the greater part of the land of Īrān, and for certain all the province of Fārs, as forming part of the dependencies of Qays, which island they named Dawlat Khānah (the Emporium). At the present day its revenues still amount to 491,300 dīnārs on the Registers, and all the neighbouring islands, which will shortly be mentioned, are of its dependencies.

Qays (or Qaysh). Of the Second Clime, in longitude 83°, and latitude 25° 15'. It is an island lying four leagues from the mainland, off Huzū, being itself four leagues long and the like broad. The city of Qays occupies its centre, and on the island are arable lands and palm groves. Pearl diving takes place here. The climate is extremely warm. Its water is from the rains, which same they store in cisterns. In the Fārs Nāmah Qays is counted as part of the district of Ardashīr Khūrah.

Baḥrayn. Of the Second Clime, in [] longitude 83°, and latitude 35° 15'. This is an island lying between Two Seas (Baḥrayn), hence its name. It is ten leagues in length, by five in breadth, and there are running streams with many gardens and villages here. The city (on the Arabian mainland) is called Hijr, which was founded by Ardashīr Bābakān. In former days Baḥ- rayn, together with Laḥsā, Qaṭīf, Khaṭṭ, Azar, Alārah, Farūq, Baynūnah, Sābūn, Dārīn and Ghābah were all counted as of the Arab kingdom. At the present day, however, the Island of Baḥ- rayn forms a part of Fārs, being of the kingdom of Īrān, though in the present work, in the map of Īrān as described on a previous page, it is not delineated, being too far afield. The peninsula of Qaṭīf, and Laḥsā, with the other neighbouring places, however, at most times pay no allegiance to the Baḥrayn rulers. Baḥrayn, in the way of fruits, produces dates, and these are very plentiful, being exported to many neighbouring lands; indeed, in days of old the Arabs had a proverb which said: He gave gifts as one who traffics in dates to Hijr, or as one who carries brocades going to Yaman. The climate of Baḥrayn is extremely hot; its water is from both springs and underground channels. The people here are, for the most part, Moslems of good religion and orthodox belief: but many are mere pirates, and excel in naught but in sailing out to sea, seizing the ships of merchants, and carrying off their goods. Ibn Khurdādbih states that whosoever makes any stay in Baḥrayn gets an enlarged spleen: as the poet has said alluding to this in the verse:

He who lives in Al-Baḥrayn his spleen enlarges,
Hence he is envied for what is in his belly: though in fact he goeth hungry.

Abzūn¹. An island one league square. There are here arable fields and date-groves, and according to the Fārs Nāmah it is to be counted as of the Ardashīr Khūrah district.

Abrūkāmānān². An island eight leagues long by three across. Most of its population are wicked folk and robbers.

Khārik. An island one league square, having arable fields and palm-groves: [] also much fruit and excellent corn grows here. The pearl fishery in Khārik is better and more abundant than in any other island, and many fine pearls come from here. This island lies about a league from the coast, and it is counted as of the Qubād Khūrah district.

The Shabānkārah Province. The Castle of Īg. Zarkān. Iṣṭahbānān and Burk. Dārābgird: the hill of seven coloured salt. Rūnīz and Lār. The Province of Kirmān: legend of Haftawād and the Worm. Guvāshīr: the Shīrjānī Garden. Bam and Jīruft. Khabīṣ. Sīrjān and other towns. The Makrān Province. Hurmūz, old and new. The Great Desert: its limits. Jarmaq and Kuhbinān. The Sīstān Province: Zarang. The Quhistān Province. Turshīz: the Cypress of Kashmar: the castles of the Assassins. Tūn and Junābad: the underground water channels. Birjand: the Poet Nizārī. Shākhīn. Ṭabas Masīnān: poisonous clay. Qāyin: Dilchaq, the Jester of Sulṭān Maḥmūd. Mūminābād: a castle of the Assassins. Zābul and Fīrūzkūh. Ghaznayn. Maymand, birthplace of Ḥasan Maymandī. Qarnīn and the Ṣaffarids

SECTION 13. Describing the province of Shabānkārah.

Here there are six districts, of the hot region, standing in the Third Clime, and the frontiers are contiguous with Fārs, Kirmān and the Persian Gulf. The revenues in Saljūq times were above two million dīnārs of the actual currency, but at the present time they amount only to 266,100 dīnārs. The capital city is the Castle of Īg (or Avīg) with the township of Zarkān, the one lying beside the other.

Īg and Zarkān. Īg in former times was but a village, which Ḥasūyah, in the days of the Saljūqs¹, raised to be a city. It stands on a hill-top, and has great fortifications. A running stream goes through it, which in time of siege, should the enemy but come to know the source thereof, and turn the current from the castle, he would soon bring the garrison to terms. Zarkān is the township at the foot of the castle; its climate is temperate, but the water is indigestible. Corn, cotton, fruits and dates, however, grow here most excellently.

Iṣṭahbānān (or Iṣṭahbānāt). A town with many trees, having a temperate climate. All kinds of fruit grow here, and there is much running water. There is a strong castle near here, which, during the wars between the Saljūqs and the Shabānkārahs, the Atabeg Chāulī laid in ruins, but afterwards it was restored.

Burk and Tārum. Two towns, of which Burk is the larger; and it has a strong castle, standing on the frontier of Kirmān. The crops are abundant, consisting of corn and dates.

Khayrah¹ and Nayrīz. Two towns, which likewise have a castle. Raisins are abundant here, and the climate is rather hot. Mīshkānāt is a well-cultivated district near by, being a dependency of Nayrīz, which [] it resembles in climate and products.

Dārābgird². Of the Third Clime, and founded by Dārāb (King Darius). It is circular in plan, and very well laid out, with a strong fortress standing in the middle of the town, surrounded by a deep ditch. At the present day this castle is in ruins. The climate is hot; corn, fruit and dates grow well here. In the neighbourhood is a hill where salt of seven colours is found; and the districts of Ḥashū, Dārkān, Miṣṣ and Rustāq are of its dependencies, with many fine villages. In the neighbourhood is a pass, very strongly fortified, called Tang-i-Ranbah³, where there is a mighty castle. The climate is good; water is to be had from springs, and in cisterns. In ancient times wheresoever the governor of Dārābgird resided, he kept in his own possession this castle. But not very recently a certain Ibrāhīm ibn Mamā⁴ became master of it: the people of Kirmān, however, overcame him, and took the castle out of his hands. In the neighbourhood is a meadow-land three leagues in length, by one in breadth.

Kurm and Rūnīz⁵. Two small towns on the road to Fasā. Their climate is temperate, but rather hot, and there is abundant running water.

Lār. A district lying near the sea coast. Most of its people are merchants, occupied in sea and land commerce. Its crops are corn, cotton, and some small quantity of dates; for their whole dependence for water is on the rains. The people are Moslems.

SECTION 14. Concerning the province of Kirmān, with Makrān and Hurmūz.

There are here eleven towns, and in the times of the Saljūqs the revenues amounted to 880,000 dīnārs; but at this present time the amount is only 676,500 dīnārs.

Kirmān takes its name from Kirm, ‘the Worm,’ which be- longed to Haftawād, and the story of the same is well known⁶.

It comprises fifteen towns, and for the most part the climate is temperate, and the frontiers of the same are Makrān with the desert that stretches beyond, and Shabānkārah with Persian `Irāq, and the Great Desert which lies between Kirmān and Quhistān. The capital of the province is Guvāshīr.

Guvāshīr. Of the Third Clime, in longitude 92° 32', and lati- tude 29° 55'. [] In the History of Kirmān¹ it is stated that king Gushtāsf built here a fire-temple, and later Ardashīr Bābakān founded the castle above the city, which he named Bardashīr; the sign of the Balance being then in the ascendant. King Bah- rām afterwards added to the buildings of the place. In the History named above, Simṭ-al-`Ulā, it is related how Ḥajjāj (the Om- mayad viceroy of `Irāq) despatched Ghaḍbān ibn al Qaba`tharā to conquer this province, but he wrote back to Ḥajjāj, ‘The water here is scant, the dates are poor in kind, the chiefs are robbers; if the army be few in numbers it will be annihilated, if numerous it will starve,’ so Ḥajjāj recalled the troops, and it was only under `Omar II that Ṣafwān effected its conquest; when, by order of that Caliph, they founded what is known here as the Old Mosque. Subsequently the Amīr `Alī Ilyās laid out the garden called Bāgh-i-Shīrjānī, which is still flourishing at the present day. He also built the Castle of the Hill; and the Tabrīzī Mosque here was erected under Tūrān Shāh the Saljūq. Among the tombs of famous saints in Guvāshīr is that of Shāh Shujā` Kirmānī.

Bam. Of the Third Clime, in longitude 92°, and latitude 38° 20'. It is said that in this city the Worm of Haftawād (before mentioned) burst, for which reason the place took the name of Bam (meaning ‘burst’). There is here a strongly fortified castle. The climate of Bam is better than that of Jīruft, but is inclined to be hot.

Jīruft. Of the Third Clime, in longitude 98°, and latitude 27° 50'. In the History of Kirmān it is stated that at the time when `Abd-Allah, son of the Caliph `Omar II, was conquering the Kirmān province, the site of Jīruft was a forest abounding in fierce lions, but the soldiers of Islam slew them all, building here villages, each of which became known by the name of its founder. The climate here is hot. The water is from the river Dīv Rūd; palm groves are numerous, and dates are cheap.

Khabīṣ. Of the Third Clime, in longitude 93°, and latitude 31°. The climate is hot, but water is to be had from the river. Dates are abundant here.

Rīghān. According to the History of Kirmān this place was founded by Bahman ibn Isfandiyār. The climate is hot, and the crops are corn and dates.

Sīrjān. Of the Third Clime, in longitude 90° 20' [], and latitude 29° 30'. The climate is hot; there is a strong castle here; and the crops are corn, cotton and dates.

Shahr-i-Bābak. This was built by Bābak, who was maternal grandfather of king Ardashīr Bābakān. It is of the Third Clime, and its crops are corn, cotton and dates.

Narmāshīr. Of the Third Clime, in longitude 94° 20', and latitude 29°. According to the History of Kirmān it was built by Ardashīr Bābakān.

Makrān. A broad province lying beyond the bounds of Īrān, the description of which therefore will be given later. It is how- ever proper just to mention it here, for its taxes belong to Īrān, since they are paid into the Kirmān Treasury.

Hurmūz. Of the Second Clime, in longitude 92°, and latitude 35°, and, standing on the coast of the Persian Gulf, it has a very hot climate. The town was founded by king Ardashīr. At this present day Quṭb-ad-Dīn, the king of Hurmūz, in fear of the brigands, has abandoned the older site, and removed the city to the Island of Jirūn, lying one league from the coast out in the Gulf. At Hurmūz dates and the sugar-cane grow abundantly. The revenues of Hurmūz, which is included in the Kirmān pro- vince, amount to 60,000 dīnārs, and this tax is paid over to the Treasury of Īrān.

SECTION 15. Concerning the (Great) Desert lying between Kirmān and Sīstān.

The beginning of the Great Desert is in the district of Qazvīn, at the village of Sūmīqān, which the Mongols call Āq Khwājah; and it extends to the shore of the `Omān sea, on the frontiers of Hurmūz. The further (south-eastern) part is the broader; its southern boundary goes past the districts of Sāvah, Qum, Kāshān, Zuvārah, Nāyīn, Yazd and so on by Kirmān and Makrān till it comes to the sea; its northern boundary goes by the districts of Ray to Qūmis and the provinces of Khurāsān and Quhistān; then by Zāvul and Sīstān to Ghaznah and Kābul, and thence down to the sea-coast. The beginning of this Desert lies in the Fourth Clime, but after passing Ardistān, and onwards till it comes to the sea, it lies in the Third Clime. Its length is 400 leagues, and its breadth in the beginning only 2 or 3 leagues; but at the lower end, near the sea, it is [] over 200 leagues across. In this Desert, although the inhabitants be fewer in number than they are in other deserts of the lands of Islam, yet robbers and brigands—who in fact are its only population—are more numerous here than in other desert places. The climate of the Desert further is temperate.

Jarmaq. There are here three villages lying on the road going (through the Desert) from Nīshāpūr to Iṣfahān. There are springs here, with palm groves, some cultivated fields and cattle.

Safīd¹. Yāqūt says that this place lies on the frontiers of Sīstān.

Ṭabas Gīlakī. Of the Third Clime, in longitude 92° 31', and latitude 33°. Its district has plentiful crops of corn, cotton and dates.

Kuhbinān. A small township of the Third Clime; they grow here corn and dates.

Nih. Of the Third Clime, and built by Ardashīr Bābakān.

SECTION 16. Concerning the provinces of Quhistān, Nīmrūz and Zābulistān.

These include seventeen cities, and the climate here is tem- perate. The frontiers march with the Great Desert, Khurāsān, Transoxiana and Kābul. The revenues are included in the sum of those paid in to Khurāsān. The capital of these pro- vinces is Sīstān City, but other great towns are Tūn, Qāyin, Khusf and Janābad.

Sīstān. This city has a broad and extensive district. It is of the Third Clime, and stands in longitude 97°, and latitude 32° 20'. It was built by the world-renowned hero Karshāsf, who gave it the name of Zarang, which the Arabs pronounce Zaranj. Near the Lake of Zirah he built a mighty dyke, to cross the road of the moving-sands, in order to preserve the city from damage as against these moving-sands (of the desert). After his days king Bahman restored the buildings of the city, renaming it Sagān, which the common folk changed to Sagistān, and this was pro- nounced by the Arabs, after Arab fashion, Sajistān, which finally in course of time became Sīstān. The climate is rather hot. Water is taken from the Siyāh Rūd canal, which is a branch from the Hirmand (Helmund) river. There are here numerous gardens, with much excellent fruit.

Bust. Of the Third Clime, in [] longitude 82°, and lati- tude 33°. A medium-sized town, with a temperate climate. Water is from the (Helmund) river. The crops are dates, corn and some little fruit. In the Ṣuwar-al-Aqālīm it is said that the people of Bust are very courteous.

Takīnābād². Of the Third Clime, in longitude 81° 55', and latitude 33° 20'. It is a medium-sized town, with a warm cli- mate. Water is from mountain streams near by, and much fruit is grown here.

Quhistān. This region includes sixteen districts.

Turshīz. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 92°, and latitude 35°. It was founded by king Bahman. It is a small town of the hot region, and possesses a strongly fortified castle. Water is from underground channels, and there are many villages near by, with lands producing excellent crops. Corn is in plenty, good fruit is abundant—such as grapes, figs and pomegranates—and silk is also produced. Thus they have crops of all kinds. Kash- mar is a provincial town of this district, and here of old was a cypress tree, taller than any other in all the rest of the world. It was planted, it is said, by Jāmāsp the Wise, and more than once in the Shāh Nāmah the Cypress of Kashmar is mentioned, as for instance in the couplet:

And a branch of cypress from Paradise they brought,
Which he planted before the gate of Kashmar.

In the village of Kashmar no earthquake is ever felt, although, in various other places, of all the neighbourhood round and about, earthquakes are common. In the Turshīz district there are many strong castles (that belonged to the Assassins), as for instance these four, the Castle of Bardā Rūd, the Castle of Mīkāl, of Mujāhid- ābād and Ātashgāh (the Fire-temple). Corn and fruit are ex- ported from this district to Nīshāpūr, Sabzavār and the neigh- bouring parts. The city of Turshīz is itself now in ruin, but the lands round are extremely well cultivated.

Tūn. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 92° 20', and latitude 34° 20'. It was formerly a large town, but is now only of medium size. The plan of the town was laid out after this fashion: first [] they built a mighty fortress with a very deep waterless ditch, then round the fortress they set the markets, next the houses of the city were built round the markets, then gardens and mulberry orchards were planted round about the houses, finally corn-fields further outside and round the gardens. Then beyond the corn-lands they raised dykes, to gather up the rain waters for the irrigation of the corn-lands, and in among these dykes they grew melons without need of further irrigation, which same were of extraordinary sweetness. The water of the town is from underground channels, the climate is temperate, both corn and fruit being grown, and silk too produced.

Tabkhah¹. Of the Fourth Clime; and as to latitude and longitude and climate it is just like Tūn.

Junābad. Commonly pronounced Gunābad. A small town, but larger than Khūr, with some dependencies lying round. It has a castle which was built by the son of Gūdarz, and the same is very strongly fortified. Looking from the summit of the hill the desert sands are in sight to the utmost view, surrounding the villages and lands, but these sands never encroach into their garden lands. Water is got from underground channels, which same are often four leagues in length, with pits going down to them that average 700 cubits in depth. There are many places in the dependencies (of Junābad), and all of these get their water from underground channels, nearly all of which are as deep as those just described; and their channels all run from south to north. There is a castle on either side of the town, one is called Qal`ah Khavāshīr, the other is Qal`ah Darjān. The crops are corn and fruit, also excellent silk is obtained here in abundance.

Dasht-i-Bayāḍ. This is not a town, but is the name of a district, of which the chief town is called Fāris, and it is the summer quarter of both Junābad and Tūn. The fruits of the cold region grow here, such as nuts, almonds and the like.

Birjand. A provincial town, round which much saffron is grown, with some little corn. There are some places of its de- pendencies, and in the villages here grapes and other fruits are grown. Nizārī the Poet was born here¹.

Khūsf. A small town with some dependencies. Their water is from the river, but for the villages the water is from under- ground channels. All kinds of crops are grown here.

Shākhīn. A district comprising several small villages, with the Fashā Rūd country [], and several other like places. All these neighbouring districts have the same crops and climate.

Zīrkūh. A district with three provincial towns, one called Isfadan, another Ashīr and the third Shārakht². In the district round corn, cotton and grapes are grown, also silk is produced. The water of all the villages is from underground channels.

Khūr. A small town on the borders of the Great Desert. Its water is from underground channels, and it has many gardens.

Ṭabas Masīnān. Of the Third Clime, in longitude 94° 55', and latitude 33°. A small town of the hot region, where there are many palm groves. Water is from underground channels, which irrigate the corn-lands of the township during seventy days, and then during other seven days serve to irrigate the places of its district. In this neighbourhood there was a pit, the clay from which, to the amount of a millet-seed, if a man ate, he would die instantly; but of late this pit has been filled up. There is also in this district a well into which during winter much water flows, and flows out of it again during the summer, which same they use for their crops. And there is again another well, into which, when anyone looks down, he sees the likeness of a fish.

Ṭabas Gīlakī³. A small town of the Third Clime, in longi- tude 92° 9', and latitude 39°. It lies seven days` march from Yazd. The climate is exceedingly hot; dates, oranges and shaddocks grow most plentifully here though they are not to be found in any other place in Khurāsān. Water is from a spring, which is sufficiently abundant to work two mills. There is a strong fort, round which all pasture is lacking; and some villages are of its dependencies.

Qāyin. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 98° 20', and lati- tude 38° 40'. It is a large town, with a strong castle. There are many underground water channels that flow beneath the town, so that in most houses they have made water-cellars to reach the same. Qāyin stands just [] twenty leagues distant from all the other towns of the Quhistān province; Turshīz and Ṭabas Gīlakī excepted. Its climate is temperate. The crops are corn, fruit and saffron in abundance. Nearly all the men here are warriors, and everybody carries arms ready for use. As soon as the first forty days of summer are past they begin to sow, and they reap in the early part of the season when the sun is in Sagittarius, getting in a plentiful harvest of the kind known as sour-barley, which same is most fattening to the cattle, and these become extremely plump by this fodder. Dilchaq, the jester of Sulṭān Maḥmūd son of Sabuktagīn, was from this town.

Darah Castle. A very strong fortress; and on the summit of the hill within the castle is a spring of water. The crops are corn, also fruit, with some few grape-vines.

Mūminābād. A district, comprising some villages with their dependencies. There is here a strong fortress, which was built by the Assassins, and this is well fortified.

Zāvul (or Zābul). A province both broad and long, which was of old a kingdom. Zābul too is the name of a large city of the hot region, where fruit is abundant, and where there are good hunting-grounds and fine pastures.

Fīrūzkūh. According to Yāqūt this is a strong castle lying between Herāt and Ghaznayn, it being the capital city of the kings of Ghaznayn. It has a cold climate, and water is from springs and cisterns.

Ṭāq Castle. A small town, where grapes grow abundantly, and some villages are of its dependencies.

Ghaznayn (or Ghaznah). Of the Third Clime, in longitude 81° 20', and latitude 33° 21'. The latitude therefore is the same as that of Baghdād. It is a small town, but with a cold climate; and if difference of climate depended on the latitude only, these two cities would enjoy one and the same temperature. Now, throughout the First, Second and Third Climes, where the sun`s altitude is much the same, the air is usually warm, while in the other Climes that are further (north) it is generally cold; but difference of climate is in fact mostly due to greater or lesser elevation of the ground level. Hence every place that is of high elevation is cold, while [] all low-lying places are hot.

Ṭurthīth¹. A small town of the warm region. The Qāḍī Abū Bakr, who is the author of a work entitled Shukr wa Shikāyat (Gratitude and Complaint), is from here.

Maymand. Of the Third Clime, in longitude 81° 55', and latitude 38° 20'. A medium-sized town of the hot region, but lying in the hill country. It has its water from a river, also from springs. Its crops are corn, dates and fruit. It is the birth- place of Khwājah Ḥasan Maymandī, the well-known Vazīr of Sulṭān Maḥmūd of Ghaznah.

Qarnīn. Yāqūt describes this as a provincial town of the Sīstān dependencies. The Ṣaffarids, sons of Layth the copper- smith, came originally from this town. Corn and some fruit are grown here.

The province of Khurāsān: its revenues in early and later times. Nīshāpūr: earthquakes: Shādyākh: watercourses: the Green Spring: marvels: fish with earring. Isfarāyin and the castle of Ṣu`lūk. Sabzavār and Juvayn. Jā- jarm: poisonous grass. Khabūshān. Ṭūs: the Shrine of the Imām `Alī-ar- Riḍā and the tomb of Hārūn-ar-Rashīd. Kilāt and Jirm. Herāt: its castle: splendour under Ghūr dynasty. Fūshanj. Bākharz and Bādghīsh: the pistachio nut crop. Jām: Shrine of Zindah Pīl. Khwāf and Zāvah: tomb of Ḥaydar. Ghūr and Gharjah. Balkh and Bāmiyān. Towns of the Jūzjān district. Khutlān and Ṭāliqān. Great Marv and its buildings. The four famous men of Khāvarān. Sarakhs and Marv-ar-Rūd. The province of Māzandarān, and its seven districts. Jurjān: the Red Tomb. Āmul and Dihistān. Rustamdār and the port of Nīm Murdān. The provinces of Qūmis and Ṭabaristān. Dāmghān and the Windy Spring. Busṭām and the shrine of Abū Yazīd Ṭayfūr. Damāvand and Khirqān. The province of Jīlān. Tūlim and Rasht. Fūmin and Kaskar. Kawtam and Lāhījān

SECTION 17. Describing the four Quarters of the province of Khurāsān.

There are numerous cities here, and the frontiers of the pro- vince are over against Quhistān, Qūmis, Māzandarān and the Khwārazm Desert.

The revenues of Khurāsān in earlier times were included in what was paid over by the whole kingdom of Īrān, and this quota during the times of the Ṭāhirid dynasty amounted to nearly ten million dīnārs. After the Mongol conquest, by reason that during most reigns the various Vazīrs and secretaries of the imperial treasury were themselves natives of Khurāsān, it was arranged through their influence that the provinces of Khurāsān, Quhistān, Qūmis, Māzandarān and Ṭabaristān should be formed into a region apart, their revenues being collected separately. Further the governors were granted abatements, by which device they would manage to keep back every year some 200,000 dīnārs from the revenues of this province, nominally for the pay of the troops. In the reign of Sulṭān Abū Sa`īd, however, his Vazīr the Amīr Ghiyāth-ad-Dīn (son of the celebrated Rashīd-ad-Dīn) becoming aware of this fraud determined no longer to allow facilities for the same. He gave orders, therefore, that the revenues of the Khurāsān province should be set at a fixed amount; then he established the sums payable for the provincial land-tax, and for the military fiefs, and for other proper expenses, and enjoined that the balance in moneys, together with the full accounts of these provinces, should be transmitted to the imperial treasury. Time, however, was not granted him to accomplish this reform, and matters have still remained much in their former evil state (since his death).

The Nīshāpūr Quarter. Herein are many cities, and the climate is for the most part temperate.

Nīshāpūr. Of the Fourth Clime, [] and at the present time this is the chief city of Khurāsān, standing in longitude 92°32’, and latitude 36°21’. It was founded by Ṭahmūrath the Demon-binder, and after it had fallen to ruin Ardashīr Bābakān built the city of Nih in the desert near by. His son Sapor I was governor of Khurāsān, and he asked this city of his father, who however denied his request; whereupon, emulation seizing on Sapor, he rebuilt (the older ruined) city and gave it the name of Nih of Shāpūr, which as Nishāpūr became its proper name, and this the Arabs called Naysābūr. The circuit of its walls was 15,000 paces; and it was laid out on the plan of a chess- board, in eight squares by eight squares, for the Chosroes had ever the habit to plan their cities after the form of some animal or inanimate thing. Sapor II planned and increased the buildings of this city, but the seat of government under the Chosroes, and down to the time of the fall of the Ṭāhirid dynasty, remained at Balkh and Marv, and it was only when the Ṣaffārids came to power that `Amr ibn Layth established the Government House in Nīshāpūr, which from that time forth became the capital of Khurāsān. In the year 605 (1208) Nīshāpūr was laid in ruins by an earthquake, whereupon a new city was built near by, which was called Shādyākh; and the circuit of its walls was 6900 paces. In the year 629 (1232) Shādyākh likewise was laid in ruins by another earthquake, and again a new city was built in another part of the plain. This is the town which is still standing, and is at the present time the capital of Khurāsān; and it lies at the foot of the mountain on the south-east of the same, the circuit of its walls being 15,000 paces.

Water is from springs and many underground channels— though some of these last are gone to ruin—and they run through the town passing under the houses. Along their courses cisterns and tanks have been made. Further, there is the river which flows down from the mountain lying some two leagues distant to the north-east of Nīshāpūr, and which is very high. Along the two leagues of its course they have erected forty mills, and the current runs so swiftly that an ass-load of wheat is no sooner placed in the hopper of the mill than, in the time it takes but to sew up the heads of two flour-sacks, it is all ground into flour, and as yet the donkey is hardly come back again (that had carried off the previous sacks).

Five leagues distant to the north of the city, on the crest of the mountain, there is a pass where is a spring called Chash- mah-i-Sabz (the Green Spring), [] from which pours forth sweet water, but greenish in colour. The Amīr Chūpān¹ built a kiosk on the border of the spring, and going up to the roof of the kiosk, you may look down into the midst of the waters. Every Friday night a terrible voice is heard coming from the midst of the spring, and yet it stands five leagues distant from the nearest inhabited place. Further, saintly persons keeping vigil by night behold on the borders of this spring the forms of water- camels, and water-cows, and water-men, and they are then seen to graze all round and about it. From the spring the water flows down through the plain, and along its course are many houses and fields. There is also another spring, in the direction of Ṭūs and Rāyikān, and the Amīr Chūpān put a fish into its waters, with an earring fixed to that fish, having a pearl as big as a pigeon’s egg set in the same. People in company and bands (of friends) are wont to take their pleasure here; they throw bread into the spring, and this fish will come and take the bread, thus diverting the folk. This spring lies four leagues distant from Ṭūs. Of famous shrines of holy men in Nīshāpūr there are these, namely the tomb of Abū `Othmān Jahrumī, of Abū `Alī Thaqafī, of `Abd Allah Mubārak, and of Shaykh Farīd-ad-Dīn `Aṭṭār.

Isfarāyin. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 91°, and lati- tude 36°33’. A city of medium size. In the mosque is an im- mense basin, the circumference of its lip measuring 12 tailor’s ells, and certainly no larger cup than this has ever been made. To the north of the town lies the strongly fortified castle of Ṣu`lūk. Some thirty villages are of the dependencies of Isfarāyin. The climate is temperate. Water is taken from the river which flows at the foot of the castle, where many walnut trees grow, and this renders it unwholesome. The district round, and the dependent villages have their water from underground channels. Crops of all kinds, such as grapes with other fruit and corn, are grown.

Bayhaq. This is the name of the district, of which the chief city is Sabzavār. This last is of moderate size, of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 89°15’, and latitude 36°55’. The climate is tem- perate. It has excellent and ample markets; further, they have built a mighty arch of wood, at the cross ways of the market street, and the same is high and strong. The crops are corn, some little [] fruit and grapes. There are some forty villages of its dependencies. The people here are Shī`ahs of the sect of the Twelve Imāms.

Biyār. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 89°15’, and lati- tude 34°45’. A medium-sized town, with a temperate climate. Its crops are corn, and some little fruit.

Juvayn. This is a district that formerly was included in that of Bayhaq, but which is now counted as separate. Its chief town is called Fariyūmad, and other large places are Baḥrābād (or Yaḥya-ābād), where Sa`d-ad-Dīn Ḥamawī lived, also Arūkāzrī, Dilband and Khūrāshāh. The people here for the most part are Shāfi`ites. Water is had from underground channels, and every village has one or two of these that never fail. Crops are of all kinds, but fruit and grapes are not very abundant.

Jājarm. Of the Fourth Clime. A medium-sized town; and since for one or two days’ journey all round the same the pastur- age is of a poisonous herb, it is quite impossible for any army ever to approach this place. There is also a strong castle here. At its foot grow two plane trees; and it is asserted that if anyone on the morning of a Wednesday take between his teeth some of the bark of these trees he will never suffer again from tooth-ache. Hence much of the bark of these trees is carried off, serving to preserve the teeth. There are many villages of the dependencies of Jājarm, but houses are not easily obtained within the town. Crops of corn and fruit are abundant.

Khabūshān. A medium-sized town of the Fourth Clime. It has many dependencies, and in the government registers the dis- trict has the name of Ustū. After the Mongol conquest Hūlāgū Khān restored its buildings, and his grandson Arghūn Khān made further additions. It has an excellent climate, and abundant crops of corn, cotton, grapes and fruit.

Shaqqān. A medium-sized town, with twenty villages of its dependencies. It is of the Fourth Clime, and has crops of all kinds.

Ṭūs. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 92°32’, and latitude 37°. It was founded by king Jamshīd, and after it had fallen to ruin, was rebuilt by Ṭūs, son of Nawdhar, and he gave the town [] his own name. Among other great shrines there is here the tomb of the (Eighth) Imām `Alī-ar-Riḍā in the village of Nūqān (or Sanābād), which lies four leagues distant from Ṭūs; and the grave of the Abbasid Caliph Hārūn-ar-Rashīd also is within the precincts of this same shrine. The shrine of Ṭūs is indeed among the most venerated of holy places, and at the present day the shrine has become a little town. From the shrine to Zāvah and Sanjān it is fifteen leagues, and Quṭb-ad-Dīn Ḥaydar is buried in Zāvah, and Shāh Sanjān in Sanjān, and Sulṭān Sulaymān in the district of Bākharz. In the south-western quarter of Ṭūs is a gateway, near which 3000 saints, all of the name of Abū Bakr, are buried, and this sanctuary is called the Rūdbār Gate. To the east of Ṭūs are the tombs of (the great divine) Muḥammad Ghazzālī, and of Aḥmad Ghazzālī, also of Firdawsī (the poet), and of Ma`shūq Ṭūsī. The people of Ṭūs are pure in life and of orthodox belief, being friendly to strangers. Of fruits the grapes and figs grown here are abundant and sweet. Round Ṭūs lies the pasturage known as the Rāyikān Meadows, 12 leagues in length by 5 across, and they are among the most celebrated in the world.

Kilāt and Jirm. Kilāt is a very strong fortress and (so ex- tensive) that in its precincts are arable lands for crops, and water here is plentiful. Jirm is a town at the base of the fortress, with some villages round it that are of its dependencies.

Marsān (or Marīnān). Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 90°20’ and latitude 36°. It is a small town, with a rather cold climate. It has running water, many gardens and produces much corn.

Farāvah. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 90°, and lati- tude 39°. A medium-sized town, with a good and temperate climate. Corn and fruit are grown here.

The Herāt Quarter. This Quarter includes nine tūmāns, and it is a broad district, all of the Fourth Clime.

Herāt. Of the Fourth Clime, in [] longitude 94°20’, and latitude 34°20’. Herāt was the name of one of the chiefs among the followers of the hero Narīmān, and it was he who first founded the city. After it had fallen to ruin Alexander the Great rebuilt it, and the circuit of its walls was 9000 paces. The climate is most excellent and pleasant, for during all the summer the north wind blows; and alluding to this, the (Arabic) saying goes: If the soil of Iṣfahān, and the north wind of Herāt, and the water of Khwārazm were but all found in one country, verily but few people would ever die there. The water of Herāt is from a canal derived from the Harī Rūd (Herāt river). Gardens are numerous, and there are eighteen villages lying close round and about the city. Of fruits there are the Fakhrī grapes and excellent melons. The men here are warlike and carry arms, being given to treachery; and they are Sunnīs in creed. There is here a strong castle known as Shamīram, and two leagues distant from Herāt on a hill there is a Fire-temple that was known as Arshak, but which at the present day is called the Castle of Amkalchah. Also, between this Fire-temple and the city, there once stood a Christian church. Of the great shrines of pious and learned men (buried in Herāt) there is the tomb of the Shaykh `Abd-Allah Anṣārī, more generally known as Pīr-i-Harī (the Old Man of Herāt), and further that of Khwājah Muḥammad Abū-l-Walīd, and of the Imām Fakhr-ad- Dīn Rāzī (of Ray). Concerning the excellence of Herāt a poet has said:

If any one ask thee which is the pleasantest of cities,
Thou mayest answer him aright that it is Herāt.
For the world is like the sea, and the province of Khurāsān like a pearl-oyster therein,
The city of Herāt being as the pearl in the middle of the oyster.

During the time when the kings of Ghūr ruled here, there were 12,000 shops all fully occupied, and 6000 bath-houses; besides caravanserais and mills, there were 359 colleges, also a Darvīsh convent, a Fire-temple, and lastly 444,000 houses inhabited by a settled population.

Asfuzār (or Isfizār). A medium-sized town, with villages of its dependencies. Its many gardens produce an abundance of grapes with pomegranates and other fruits. In the Ṣuwar-al-Aqālīm it is said that the people here are Sunnīs of the Shāfi`ite sect, being also very bigoted.

Fūshanj. Of the Fourth Clime, in [] longitude 94°5’, and latitude 34°55’. It is a small town, but has very extensive dis- tricts round, among its dependent towns being Kūsūy, Khusraw- gird and Rūḥ, besides other pleasant places. Gardens abound, with grapes, melons and other excellent fruit, so that it is said over a hundred kinds of grapes are grown here. All the mills here are worked by wind. Further, it is stated that the Pharaoh who reigned in Egypt in the time of Moses, as also Hāmān who was his Vazīr, both came from this place; and it is said too that Jāmāsp the Sage lies buried in Kūsūy.

Bākharz. A district of the Fourth Clime, with many rich sub- districts, in most of which there are gardens growing grapes and much fruit. Such especially is Mālān, a large town of many excellencies, and among the rest they grow here the long melon which is famous throughout Khurāsān.

Bādghīsh. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 95°30’, and lati- tude 35°20’. Its chief towns are Kūh Nuqrah (Silver-Hill), Kūh Ghunābād, Buzurgtarīn, Bust, Lab and Ḥād, Azkāyirūn, Kālūn and Dihistān¹, with their dependencies. The residence of the governor is Kūh Ghunābād, while in its neighbourhood are Bu- zurgtarīn, Dihistān and Kārīz, which last was where the Veiled (Prophet of Khurāsān) once lived, who is known as the Moon- maker of Nakhshab. In this district there is a forest, some five leagues long and the like across, that is all full of pistachio nut trees. When these are bearing the fruit, people come hither from Herāt and other places, who gather the pistachio nuts, carrying them off home for their own consumption, also to sell; and there are many whose whole livelihood depends on the crop they gather here. And further, there is this marvel, that if any one in so doing should carry off the pistachio nuts that another has gathered, that very same night his ass will be eaten by a wolf, while he who does no such evil thing, his ass remains safe.

Jām. Of the Fourth Clime [], in longitude 94°5’, and latitude 34°50’. A medium-sized town, with nearly 200 villages of its dependencies. There are many gardens, with much fruit. Water, for both the town and district, is got from underground channels. A celebrated shrine here is the tomb of Zindah Pīl Aḥmad of Jām, over which Khwājah `Alā-ad-Dīn Muḥammad has built a fine dome, and other shrines with many other blessed graves lie all round this place.

Chast. A medium-sized town; with a district that includes 50 villages; it lies on the river Harī Rūd. At the present day Chast also is where the governor (of the province) lives. The crops are abundant, the fruit excellent, more especially the large white apple, the like of which is found nowhere else in Khurāsān.

Khwāf. A district lying in longitude 98°20’, and latitude 35°20’. The chief towns of its dependency are Salāmah, Sanjān and Zawzan; and in this last Malik Zawzanī built a mighty palace. Fruits here are excellent, such as grapes, melons, pome- granates and figs. The people are of the Ḥanifite sect, they are law abiding and very much attached to their faith. They are friendly to strangers, being given to charity; and they often make the pilgrimage (to Mecca). Much silk and madder is pro- duced here.

Zāvah. A district, the chief town of which also is called Zāvah. It has a strong clay-built castle. Some 50 villages are of its dependencies, some having their water from a river, and some from underground channels. Silk is produced here, and the crops are corn, cotton, grapes and other fruit in abundance. There is seen here the shrine of Shaykh Quṭb-ad-Dīn Ḥaydar, who was the founder of the Ḥaydarī sect.

Ghūr. A district, of which the capital is known as Āhan- garān. It is of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 99°, and latitude 35°. There are some 30 villages of its dependencies. The people here are commonly credited with being very stupid.

Gharjah (Gharjistān). Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 99°, and latitude 36°40’. It is a district that includes some 50 villages, and the climate resembles [] that of Ghūr.

The Balkh Quarter. This includes Tukhāristān, Khutlān and Bāmiyān.

Balkh. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 81°41’, and lati- tude 36°41’. The city was founded by Gayūmarth, completed by Ṭahmūrath the Demon-binder, and its buildings were after- wards restored by Luhrāsp, who set a wall round it. It is a large city in the hot region, and its climate is only moderately healthy. Fruits, especially grapes and melons, are extremely good here. Sulṭān Malik Shāh in his Diary notes that the people here show very little jealousy.

Bāmiyān. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 82°, and latitude 34°35’. The climate is cold. At the time of the Mongol in- vasion Prince Mūtūkin, son of Jaghatāy Khān, met his death (during the siege of Bāmiyān), and for this reason, to avenge his grandson, Changhīz Khān ordered the town to be laid in ruins, re- naming the place Māv Bāliq (‘Bad town’ in Mongol), and com- manding that no one should ever build or settle there. And so it remains a ruin even to the present time.

Panjhīr. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 82°, and latitude 36°35’. A medium-sized town, with a good climate; and the crops are corn, with some little fruit.

Jūzjān. A district, the cities of which are Yahūdah, Fāryāb and Shubūrqān. It is of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 98°, and latitude 35°20’. It has a temperate climate. Water is from underground channels, which come down from the mountains of that neighbourhood. Some little corn and fruit is grown here.

Khutlān. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 81°, and latitude 20°. There was a large town here, but it is now in ruins. The crops are corn, cotton and grapes.

Saminjān. Of the Tukhāristān district, in the Fourth Clime, in longitude 82°, and latitude 35°. It is a small town; and on the western side are three suburbs, all standing one close to the other, while on the eastern side are other three suburbs, all standing separate one from the other. It has a strong castle; water is plentiful, and there are many gardens, [] with fruit, such as grapes, figs, peaches and pistachios, which are both ex- cellent and plentiful.

Ṭāliqān. Of the Tukhāristān district, in the Fourth Clime, longitude 81°, and latitude 20°35’. A small town, and most of the men there are weavers. Corn and fruit is grown abundantly; it being a very populous and well-cultivated district.

Fāryāb. Of the Fourth Clime, in the Jūzjān district, longi- tude 99°, and latitude 37°45’. It is a small town, smaller than Ṭāliqān, but with many dependencies and much fruit.

Quvādiyān. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 82°, and latitude 38°. Kay Qubād, the Kayanian, built this town, and other places belonging to its district are Navīdah, Vāshjird and Shūmān. The climate is warm, and much saffron is grown here.

Kālif. A small town lying on the banks of the Oxus, which last at this point is 3000 paces broad. The circuit of the town wall is also 3000 paces. The climate is harsh, but fruit is excel- lent and plentiful.

Dalaj.¹ A castle lying twenty (or eight) leagues from Balkh. It stands on a mountain that is eight leagues in circuit, and is entirely of black rock, with no road up to it. On the summit there is abundant water and pasture; it is a very strong place.

The Marv Shāhijān Quarter.

Marv. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 96°7’, and latitude 37°40’. The Old Fort of Marv was built by Ṭahmūrath, and Alexander the Great founded the city, making it the capital of Khurāsān. Abū Muslim, the Abbasid missioner, built the Friday Mosque, and alongside of it the Government House. This was a mighty palace, with a dome that covered a space 55 ells square; and on each side of this was a hall 30 ells by 60 ells. The Caliph Mamūn, when he was still only governor of Khurāsān, resided in Marv; but afterwards the Ṣaffārids transferred the capital to Nīshāpūr. When the Saljūqs came to power, Chaghar Beg brought the capital back to Marv; and his grandson, Malik Shāh, [] built a wall round the city, the circuit of which was 12,300 paces. In this district wheat grows so well that it is even as the Qurān (ch. 11. v. 263) says—the likeness of those who expend their wealth in the cause of God is that of a grain of corn, which produceth seven ears, and in each ear a hundred grains—and the same is supposed to have been revealed in reference to the Marv district. For they say that one mann-weight of corn, when it is sown, produces a harvest of 100 manns in the first year; and in the second year 30 manns is harvested, from that which, having been reaped, has scattered again of itself the seed; and likewise in the third year 10 manns. The climate here is damp, and sickness is common, more especially the malady of the guinea-worm. Water is from the river Marv-Rūd; and the water of the underground channels is brackish, for which same cause its crops are so abundant. Here and there the moving-sand (of the Desert) comes in (over the arable lands), for near by these moving- sands are over-mastering the land. Of fruits pears, grapes and melons are excellent; these last, dried, being exported to many lands, and the single quinces too are very good. The people here are much given to fighting, and the city now is mostly in ruin. In the past many great and learned persons have come from here; as, for instance, under the Chosroes, Barzūyah the physician, Buzurjmihr son of Bakhtikān (the Vazīr), and Bārbad the musi- cian. Further, Dīh Safīdanj¹, which is one of the farmsteads near Marv, was the original home of Abū Muslim, the missioner of the Abbasids.

Usfūrqān.² Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 95°, and lati- tude 36°45’. A small town, where nothing is grown but wheat.

Abīvard. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 98°40’, and latitude 37°25’. A small town, where much fruit is grown.

Taftāzān.³ Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 95°, and latitude 36°45’. A medium-sized town, with many gardens, water being plentiful, with running streams. Its crops are fruit and corn.

Khāvarān.¹ Of the Fourth Clime, in latitude 40°40’, and longitude 95°. A medium-sized town, with many gardens and abundant running water. [] Much fruit and corn are grown. One of the dependencies of Khāvarān is the town of Mihnah, the home of the Shaykh Abū Sa`īd, son of Abū-l-Khayr—may Allah sanctify his tomb—and here he lies buried. The following verses were written in honour of the great men who took their origin from Khāvarān:

Since the sphere of Fame revolved over the land of Khāvarān
Before night closed in, there arose four Khāvarī Suns;
A Minister like Abū `Alī Shādānī, that lord of a lucky conjunction;
A Muftī like As`ad of Mihnah, free of every fault;
A pure Ṣūfī like Abū Sa`īd, that master of the mystic Path;
And a glorious poet like the famous Anvarī of Khurāsān.
Rejoice, O earth and water of Khāvarān, for verily by grace,
And like the earth and the water of the sea, thou hast produced a mine of jewels².

Sarakhs. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 94°20’, and latitude 37°. It was founded by Afrāsiyāb the Turk, and the circuit of its walls was 5000 paces. It has a strong castle, built on clay foundations. The climate is hot, and the water is from the great river which comes down from Herāt and from Ṭūs; and its waters are excellent and digestive. Of fruits grown here, grapes and melons are very good.

Shuburqān.³ A small town, with a hot climate. Corn is plentiful here, and very cheap.

Marv-ar-Rūd. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 97°, and latitude 36°20’. Among its dependent towns is Panj-dīh, which Sulṭān Malik Shāh built. The circuit of the wall of Marv-ar-Rūd is 5000 paces. It has a warm climate, but the air is sharp. The water is wholesome, and in most seasons provisions are plentiful; grapes and melons being especially excellent here. Many vil- lages [] are of its dependencies.

Bāzar.⁴ A medium-sized town of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 95°, and latitude 36°40’. In its district much corn is grown.

Nāy Castle. This was the place of captivity of (the Poet) Mas`ūd, son of Sa`d, son of Salmān.

SECTION 18. Concerning the province of Māzandarān.

This comprises seven tūmāns, as follows: first, the Jurjān tūmān, where is the capital; second, Mūrūstāq; third, Astarābād; fourth, Āmul and Rustamdār; fifth, Dihistān; sixth, Rūghad; and seventh, Siyāh Rustāq¹. The revenues of Māzandarān are included in the sum of those of Khurāsān.

Jurjān. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 90°, and latitude 36°55’. The city was refounded by the grandson of Malik Shāh. The circuit of its walls is 7000 paces. The climate is warm and damp. The water is from the hill streams; and, further, the hills are so near that in the hot season they bring down snow from thence into the town. Corn and cotton, also silk, are alike found here; and of fruits, dates, grapes, with the Jujube-tree and its fruit, all are excellent and plentiful. As showing excellence in development and increase, it is found that trees here, of two or three years’ growth, are stronger and more productive than those of ten years in other provinces. The people are Shī`ahs, and their bravery is known. In the early days of Islam too their numbers gave them predominance, but in the times of the Buyids a notable decrease in the inhabitants became visible by reason of pestilence and wars; and, further, a general massacre of the people took place when the Mongols made their invasion. At the present day the town is in ruins, and the number of the population small. King Fīrūz the Sassanian built a wall on the frontier of Jurjān to repel the attacks of the Turanians, and it is 50 leagues in length. Among the notable shrines here is the tomb of Muḥammad, son of the Imām Ja`far-aṣ-Ṣādiq, which same is known commonly as the Gūr-i-Surkh (the Red Tomb). Further, in Jurjān may be seen two millstones, each 20 ells in diameter and 2 ells in thickness.

Astarābād. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 89°35’, and latitude 36°55’. It is a medium-sized town [], situated at no great distance from the Caspian, with a mild climate. It produces corn, fruit, grapes and silk.

Āmul. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 87°20’, and latitude 36°30’. It was founded by king Ṭahmūrath. It is a large town, with a warm climate, and the fruits of both the hot and the cold region grow here. Such are walnuts and almonds, grapes and dates, oranges, shaddocks and lemons, with the bitter orange; all these fruits growing together in abundance; also perfumed flowers very excellent and rich; and in fact if the city were cut off entirely from all imports, nothing more beside what it could itself produce would be needed.

Dihistān. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 91°14’, and latitude 37°55’. It was founded by king Qubād, son of Fīrūz the Sassanian. Later it became one of the frontier fortresses of the Moslems against the (heathen) Turks. It has a warm climate, with water from a river; and its lands produce some little fruit.

Rustamdār. A district that counts nearly 300 villages of its dependencies. The climate is warm, and most of its lands are watered by the river Shāhrūd.

Sārī. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 83°, and latitude 37°. It was founded by Ṭahmūrath the Demon-binder. It is a medium-sized town, the circuit of its walls being about 4000 paces. There are many districts of its dependencies, where fruit, cotton and corn in plenty are grown.

Rūghad. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 88°, and lati- tude 37°. It is a town of medium size.

Kabūd Jāmah. A district that, like Jurjān, is now ruined, but many places are counted of its dependencies where silk is still produced, with corn and grapes in plenty, for it has many broad lands.

Nīm Murdān. A peninsula (or island), and there are here many folk. Ships from Russia, Gīlān and Māzandarān come hither. It lies but three leagues distant from Astarābād, and has great revenues by reason of the shipping.

Shahrābād. A market town, founded by king Qubād, son of Fīrūz the Sassanian. It is now in ruins. []

SECTION 19. Describing the provinces of Qūmis and Ṭabar- istān.

The frontiers of these provinces march with Khurāsān, Per- sian `Irāq, Māzandarān and the Great Desert. Their revenues are included in the sum of those of Khurāsān.

Khuvār. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 87°10’, and lati- tude 35°20’. Īt is a small town, but corn and cotton grow ex- cellently here.

Dāmghān. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 88°15’, and latitude 36°20’. It was founded by Hūshang. The circuit of its walls is 8000 paces. The climate is warm; water is from its river. The pears here are excellent. There is a spring near by Dāmghān, round which stand four villages. It gives but little water, and what there is, is rather yellow in colour. But if any dirt shall be thrown into it a wind forthwith arises in Dāmghān that blows down all the trees. Then some respectable folk go and cleanse the spring, and thereupon the wind falls. Many times has this experiment been made.

Samnān. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 83°, and latitude 36°. It was founded by Ṭahmūrath. The climate is temperate. Water is from its river; and fruits, such as pomegranates, pista- chios and figs, are of excellent quality here.

Busṭām. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 89°, and latitude 36°10’. A small town, with a temperate climate. Of shrines here there is the tomb of that Sulṭān of the Learned Abū Yazīd (Bāyazīd) Ṭayfūr Busṭāmī. The crops of Busṭām are fruit and corn in abundance.

Girdkūh. This is also called Diz-i-Gunbadān (the Fort of the Domes). It lies three leagues from Dāmghān, and in its neigh- bourhood are the other castles of Manṣūrābād, Muhāt, and Rus- tāq. The land is much cultivated, and crops are abundant.

Fīrūzkūh. Yāqūt mentions this as a castle lying on the slopes of Mount Damāvand. The climate is cold, and there are no trees here, but corn grows abundantly, giving excellent har- vests. The river flowing down to Khuvār runs past the gate of this castle, and by the village near here. []

Damāvand. A provincial town, which is also known as Pashyān (or Mīshān). It is of the Fourth Clime, lying in longi- tude 87°20’, and latitude 35°10’, and it was founded by king Gayūmarth. The climate is cold, and the `Abbāsī (apple) here is excellent, so good indeed that they make a syrup therefrom.

Firrīm.¹ Some count this as of Qūmis, some as of the de- pendencies of Māzandarān. On the other hand, as it is often considered to belong to Sārī, being put under the command of the governor of that city, it is counted either as of Qūmis or of Sārī.

Khirqān. A village of the dependencies of Busṭām. The climate is good, and water is abundant. Among shrines here is seen the tomb of Shaykh Abū-l-Ḥasan Khirqānī.

SECTION 20. Concerning the province of the Jīlāns.

There are here twelve towns, being of the Fourth Clime. The province lies along the shore of the Caspian Sea; in length, from the river Safīd Rūd and Rustamdār to the Mughān province, being 40 leagues; but in breadth, from the districts of Daylam and Ṭālish down to the sea-coast, being (often) only one league. Its frontiers march with the provinces of Māzandarān, Persian `Irāq, Ādharbāyjān and the Caspian Sea. As to its revenues, every man of Jīlān is bound to pay a tax to the Amīr who is the governor of his particular district; and to the Mongol treasury what is paid in is 20,000 dīnārs. The two largest places here are Lāhījān and Fūmin, and all the remaining Jīlān districts are dependent on one or the other of these two towns, being counted as of their dependencies.

Iṣfahbad. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 85°, and lati- tude 38°. A medium-sized town. Its crops are corn, rice and some fruit. It has many districts, and nearly one hundred vil- lages are of its dependencies. Its revenues amount to 29,000 dīnārs.

Tūlim. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 85°, and latitude 38°. A medium-sized town, with crops of corn, cotton, rice, oranges, shaddocks and lemons.

Tamījān.¹ A medium-sized town, of the Fourth Clime, with crops like those of neighbouring places.

Rasht. Of the Fourth Clime. It is very hot, and its climate is damp. Corn,[] cotton, silk and rice and produced here. The people are mountaineers, and a rough folk.

Shaft. A small town of the Fourth Clime, with climate and produce like those of neighbouring places.

Fūmin. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 84°, and latitude 33°. A large town, with many districts. Its crops are corn and cotton; much silk too is produced here. The people of Jīlān here- about, for the most part, live in booths of branches.

Kaskar (or Kashkar). A medium-sized town, of the Fourth Clime, and like neighbouring places as to climate.

Kūjafhān.¹ Of the Fourth Clime. It was founded by Arda- shīr Bābakān, who gave it the name of Sahmash.

Kawtam. Of the Fourth Clime, and lying on the shore of the Caspian. It is a port frequented by ships sailing to and from Jurjān, Ṭabaristān and Shīrvān. Its crops are abundant.

Karjiyān.¹ Of the Fourth Clime. Of old it was a large place, but now is but a medium-sized town, with climate like the neigh- bouring places.

Lāhījān. Of the Fourth Clime, in longitude 85°, and latitude 38°. It is a large town, and the capital of Gīlān. Its water is from mountain streams. It produces rice, also silk and some little corn, with oranges, shaddocks and other fruits of the hot region in abundance.

Naysar.² A small town of the Fourth Clime, and like other towns of Gīlān in matter of climate.

The Highroads: length of the Farsakh or League. The Southern High- road: Sulṭāniyyah to Baghdād and Najaf. Thence to Mecca. Mecca to Medina. Medina to Najaf. Wāsiṭ to Tha`labiyyah. Baghdād to Baṣrah, and thence to Baḥrayn. Baṣrah to Qays. Baghdād to Iṣfahān. Baghdād to Raḥbah, and Baghdād to Mosul. The Eastern Highroad, from Sulṭāniyyah by Ray, Nīshāpūr and Marv-ar-Rūd to the Oxus beyond Balkh. Busṭām to Urganj. Nīshāpūr to Herāt. Nīshāpūr to Turshīz. Herāt to Zaranj. Herāt to Marv. Marv to Balkh. Marv to Urganj. The Northern Highroad. Sul- ṭāniyyah to Bājarvān. Bājarvān to Maḥmūdābād. Bājarvān to Qarābāgh and Tiflīs. Bājarvān to Tabrīz. The Western Highroad. Sulṭāniyyah to Tabrīz and Sīvās. The South-eastern Highroad. Sulṭāniyyah to Iṣfahān. Iṣfahān to Shīrāz. Shīrāz to Qays Island. Thence, by Sea, to Ceylon. Shīrāz to Kāzirūn. Shīrāz to Hurmūz. Shīrāz to Īg. Shīrāz to Kirmān. Shīrāz to Yazd. Shīrāz to Arrajān and Bustānak

DIVISION III, in five sections; describing the Highroads, Mountains, Minerals, Rivers, Springs and Wells, Seas and Lakes (of the Land of Īrān).

SECTION I. As to the distances along the highroads of Īrān.

When discussing the length of the League (Farsakh) in the earlier part of this work, it was explained how in ancient days the learned, in the reign of king Kay Qubād the Kayānian, established the length of the League to be three miles, which is equivalent to 12,000 Common Ells (Dhirā` Khalqī), which is other than the measure known as the Tailor’s Cubit (Gaz-i-Khayyāṭī). Now in [] the Diary of Malik Shāh it is recorded that this monarch, becoming acquainted with the varying lengths of the Farsakh in his journeyings over the many roads of Īrān and of his other kingdoms, gave orders to measure the (various) Farsakhs. And it was found that while the League was of 15,000 paces (Gām) in Khwārazm more or less, in Ādharbāyjān and Armenia it was only of about 10,000 paces; and throughout the Two `Irāqs, Kurdistān, Luristān, Khūzistān, Khurāsān, Fārs, Shabānkārah and Diyār Bakr, with their neighbouring districts, the Farsakh measured but 6000 paces. Then, furthermore, in the provinces of Rūm (Asia Minor), Gurjistān, Arrān, Mūghān and Shīrvān, the Farsakh was not in use, distances being counted in Stages (Manzil) and by time. Malik Shāh, therefore, throughout his dominions estab- lished the use of the League which averaged 6000 paces, and the distances along the roads that he traversed are stage by stage set down in his Diary after this computation. Later, in the reign of Ūljāytū Sulṭān the Mongol, when after this same fashion various roads were measured, and mile-stones set up, the Farsakh was counted, approximately, as of 8000 Tailor’s Cubits (Gaz-i-Khay- yāṭī). Now, the Common Ell (mentioned above) being but two- thirds of the length of the Tailor’s Cubit, and the average Pace (Gām) being of greater length than the Tailor’s Cubit, all the above estimates of the League work out to about the same result, and this may be taken as equivalent more or less to the Farsakh of 12,000 Common Ells, as estimated by the learned men of former days.

We now begin with the highroads going out of the city of Sulṭāniyyah, which stands in the midst of Īrān and has come to be its capital, the which roads lead to the furthest frontiers of the land; and thereto we shall add the description of the bye-roads that branch from the highroads in order that without fail all may be made comprehensible¹.

The Southern Highroad.—This goes towards the Qiblah point, which, starting from Sulṭāniyyah, leads to Najaf at the frontier of Īrān; and the distance is 144 leagues.

From Sulṭāniyyah to Hamadān.—Sulṭāniyyah 5 leagues to Bajshīr village, thence 5 to Walaj village, thence 4 to the Rubāṭ of Atabeg Muḥammad ibn Īldagiz, thence 4 to Karkahar village in the Hamadān province, thence 6 to Ṣājī village of Hamadān, thence [] 6 to the city of Hamadān. Total from Sulṭāniyyah to Hamadān 30 leagues².

From Hamadān to Qaṣr-i-Shīrīn.—Hamadān by the pass over mount Arvand (Elvend) in 7 leagues to the city of Asadābād, thence it is 6 to Kanguvar the first village in Kurdistān. Kangu- var in 5 leagues to Ṣahnah village, thence 4 to Jamjamāl city, thence in 6 leagues—the terrace of the horse Shabdīz lying one league to the right of the road, with the portraits of King Khusraw and Queen Shīrīn carved on the rocks at a place where two springs gush out that turn two mills—to Kirmānshāhān, thence 6 to Jak- ārmis, thence 5 to Ḥisākāvān village, thence 6 to the villages of Kirind and Khūshān, thence by the Pass of Ṭāq-i-Girrā¹ in 8 leagues to Ḥulwān city; but by the Gīl-wa-Gīlān road this last stage is easier, though 1 league longer. Then from Ḥulwān, the first place in the province of Arabian `Irāq, it is 5 leagues to Qaṣr-i-Shīrīn, and the road here divides. From Hamadān to Qaṣr-i-Shīrīn it is 58 leagues, and 88 from Sulṭāniyyah².

From Qaṣr-i-Shīrīn, on the road to Baghdād, it is 5 leagues to Khāniqīn city, thence 5 to Rubāṭ Jalūlā built by Malik-Shāh the Saljūq³, thence 5 to Hārūniyyah, thence—with Shahrabān lying 2 leagues distant to the right of the road—in 7 leagues to Ba`qūbā city, and thence 8 to Baghdād. Total (from Qaṣr-i-Shīrīn) to Baghdād 30 leagues, from Hamadān 88, and from Sulṭāniyyah 118 leagues.

From Baghdād to Najaf, on the frontier of Īrān.—From Baghdād [] it is 2 leagues to Ṣarṣar village, thence 7 to Farā- shah⁴, thence 7 to the Nīl Canal, passing Nars village where Nimrod threw Abraham into the fire, this lying 1 league to the left of the road. From the Nīl Canal it is 2 leagues to the city of Ḥillah—the city of Bābil lying on the Euphrates half a league away to the right hand. From Ḥillah it is 6 leagues to the city of Kūfah, and 2 leagues distant from here lies the Mashhad (Place of Martyrdom) of `Alī, the Commander of the Faithful, at Najaf on the desert border. Total: from Baghdād to Najaf it is 26 leagues, from Hamadān 114, and from Sulṭāniyyah 144 leagues.

From Najaf to Mecca.—From Mashhad (`Alī) which lies on the border (of the desert) at Najaf to Mecca it is 27 stages. On these stages the Lady Zubaydah, wife of Hārūn-ar-Rashīd, and Sulṭān Malik Shāh the Saljūq, and other great folk, have dug water-tanks, raised many buildings and set up signs to mark the way. From Mashhad (`Alī) it is 24 miles to Mughīthah, and the supping-place is at Wādī-as-Sibā` (Valley of Lions) after 15 miles¹. The poet Jarīr wrote:

Verily the great misfortune was the death of (Zubayr, rival of
`Alī for the Caliphate), whose tomb
Is at Wādī-as-Sibā`, and many warriors lie round him there.

At Mughīthah there are cisterns. Thence to Qar`ā is 32 miles, where there are wells, and the supping-place is after 14 miles at Masjid Sa`d, who is of the Fazzārah tribe; the common folk, however, attribute this mosque to Sa`d ibn Abū Waqqāṣ (the conqueror of Arabian `Irāq). From Qar`ā it is 24 miles to Wā- qiṣah, where there are wells, among the rest the Well of Qurūn, dug by Sulṭān Malik Shāh. This is 15 ells square, and 400 ells in depth, cut down through rock. The supping-place is at Ṭarf, after 14 miles. From Wāqiṣah it is 29 miles to `Aqabah Shayṭān (the Devil’s Pass), where there are wells. The supping-place is after 14 miles at Qubaybāt: mentioned by the poet, who says: []

Shall we ever once again
To Qubaybāt return?

From `Aqabah to Qā` is 24 miles, where there are wells, and the supping-place is at Al-Jalḥā after 13 miles. From Qā` to Zubālah 24 miles, here there is water abundantly, and the supping-place is at Juraysī after 14 miles. From Zubālah to Shuqūq 21 miles, where there are tanks<sup>2</sup>, and the supping-place is at Tanānīr after 14 miles. From Shuqūq to Biṭān, otherwise Qabr-al-`Ibādī (the Tomb of the `Ibādite), 29 miles, where there are tanks, and the supping-place is at Bardīn after 14 miles. From Biṭān to Tha`la- biyyah 29 miles, and the supping-place is at Muhallabiyyah after 14 miles. Total: to Tha`labiyyah from Najaf 236 miles, which is 78 leagues and 2 miles: while from Baghdād it is counted 104 leagues and 2 miles. At Tha`labiyyah the road from Wāsiṭ (to Mecca) joins the road from Baghdād: and Tha`labiyyah is counted as at one-third of the distance from Baghdād to Mecca.

From Tha`labiyyah it is 32 miles to Khuzaymiyyah, where there are tanks, and the supping-place is at Ghumays after 14 miles. From Khuzaymiyyah to Ajfur is 24 miles, where there are tanks, and the supping-place is at Baṭn-al-Agharr after 14 miles. From Ajfur to Fayd<sup>3</sup> 33 miles, and here there is running water: the supping-place is at Qarāyin after 20 miles. From Fayd to Tūz is 31 miles; here there are tanks and wells, and the supping- place is at Qurnatayn after 17 miles. From Tūz to Samīrā 20 miles, where there are tanks and wells, and the supping-place is at Fuḥaymah after 12 miles. From Samīrā to Ḥājir 36 miles, where there are tanks and wells, and the supping-place is at `Abbāsiyyah after 15 miles. From Ḥājir to Ma`dan Nuqrah (Silver Mine) 34 miles, where there are wells, and the supping- place is at Karawrā after 17 miles. Total from Tha`labiyyah to this place 210 miles, which is 70 leagues: and from Najaf it is 148 leagues and 2 miles, and from Baghdād 174 leagues [] and 2 miles. Here the road to Medina branches off (to the right).

From Ma`dan Nuqrah to Mughīthat-al-Māwān 33 miles; here there are tanks and wells, and the supping-place is at Samṭ after 16 miles. From Mughīthat-al-Māwān to Rabadhah 24 miles, where there are wells and tanks, and the supping-place is at Arīmah after 14 miles. From Rabadhah to Ma`dan Banī Sulaym 24 miles, where there are tanks, and the supping-place is at Sha- rawrā after 12 miles. From Ma`dan Banī Sulaym to Salīlah 26 miles, and the supping-place is at Kunābayn after 12 miles. From Salīlah to `Umaq 21 miles, where there are tanks and wells, and the supping-place is at Sanjah after 12 miles. From `Umaq to Ufay`īyah 32 miles; here there are tanks and wells, and the supping-place is at Kurā` after 15 miles. From Ufay`īyah to Mislaḥ 34 miles, where there are wells and tanks, and the supping-place is at Kibrānah after 14 miles. From Mislaḥ to Ghamrah 18 miles; here there are wells and tanks, and the sup- ping-place is at Qaṣr after 8 miles. From Ghamrah to Dhāt-al- `Irq is 26 miles: and here on this route is the Mīqāt (Place of Meeting)<sup>1</sup>, though some count it as at Mislaḥ: and the supping- place is at Awṭās after 12 miles. At either Awṭās or Dhāt-al- `Irq the road from Baṣrah joins the (Baghdād-Mecca) road. From Dhāt-al-`Irq to Bustān (the Garden of) Ibn `Āmir is 22 miles, and here there is water in plenty, and the supping-place is at Ghamr Dhī Kindah after 15 miles. From Bustān Ibn `Āmir to Mecca is 24 miles, and the supping-place is at Mushāsh after 15 miles. Total: from Ma`dan Nuqrah to Mecca 284 miles, which make 94 leagues and 2 miles: and from Tha`labiyyah 164 leagues and 2 miles: and from Najaf 243 leagues and 1 mile: and from Baghdād 269 leagues and 1 mile: and from Hamadān 357 leagues and 1 mile: and from Sulṭāniyyah 387 leagues and 1 mile.

In the Ṣuwar-al-Aqālīm it is given that the road direct from Najaf to Mecca is just 27 marches, [] while from Kūfah to Medina it is 20 marches and from Medina to Mecca 10 marches.

From Mecca to Medina by the highroad.—From Mecca to Baṭn Marr 16 miles; here there is a spring and a tank. Thence to `Usfān 33 miles, where there are wells. Thence to Qudayd, where there are wells, 24 miles. Thence to Juḥfah, which is the Mīqāt (Place of Meeting) of pilgrims coming from Syria, 27 miles: and the Red Sea lies but 5 miles distant at this stage. Thence to the village of Abwā, where there are wells, 27 miles. Thence to Suqyā, where there is running water, 29 miles. Thence to Ruwaythah, where there is a water-tank, 36 miles. Thence to Siyālah, where there are wells, 34 miles. Thence to Malal, where there are wells, 19 miles. Thence to Shajarah 12 miles, and thence to Medina 3 miles. Total from Mecca to Medina 260 miles, which is 86 leagues and 2 miles.

(From Mecca to Medina) by the Badr road¹. —From Mecca to the village of Ḥayy 3 leagues. Thence to the Cave of Abū Bakr and `Othmān (or `Omar), called Sīsān, or Rafī`, 6 leagues. Thence to the Water of Al-Khulayṣ, where is the pass called `Aqabah Suwayq, 8 leagues. Thence to the Cave of Ṭafwah Rāthiq, otherwise called Wādī Ṭafwān, 8 leagues. Thence to the Water of Rābiṭ `Arāb, and Su`āl Rāthiq and Su`āl Abḥūd, where stands the column of Abū Jahl, 8 leagues. Thence to the Valley of Badr 8 leagues. Thence to Badr and Ḥunayn 9 leagues. Thence to Wādī-aṣ-Ṣafrā 6 leagues. Thence to Wādī-al-Ghazāl 8 leagues. Thence to Dhū-l-Ḥulayfah, which is the Mīqāt (Place of Meeting), 7 leagues. Thence to the well of the Caliph `Alī 8 leagues; and thence to Medina 2 leagues. [] Total: 243 miles, which is 81 leagues.

(From Mecca to Medina) by the route that the Prophet went on the occasion of his Flight.—From below Mecca the guide led him down to near the sea-coast at `Usfān: thence by the road passing Qudayd he went up through Al-Kharrār and by the pass called Thanīyat-al-Marāh. Thence he passed on by the Mad- lajah (water-trough) of Mujāj; then by Marjiḥ; then by Baṭn Marjiḥ of Dhū-l-Ghaḍawayn; then by Baṭn Dhāt Kishd; then by Al-Ajrad; then by Dhū Samur; then by Baṭn A`dā, and the water-trough of Ta`hin, arriving at `Ithyānah. Then by Khān to Al-Qāḥah, and by the descent to Al-`Arj, and through the pass called Thanīyat-al-A`yār, coming out to the right hand, and finally descending to Qubā of the Banī `Amr ibn `Awf; from which he came in to Medina.

From Medina to Najaf, near Mashhad (`Alī) on the return journey.—From Medina to Ṭaraf, where there is running water, 35 miles. Thence to Baṭn Nakhl, where rain-water is found, 22 miles. Thence to `Usaylah, where there are wells of brackish water, 36 miles. Thence to Ma`dan Nuqrah 46 miles. Total from Medina to Ma`dan Nuqrah 139 miles, which make 46 leagues and 1 mile. Then from Ma`dan Nuqrah on to Najaf it is, as has already been detailed, 148 leagues and 2 miles, which makes a total of 195 leagues (from Medina to Najaf).

From Wāsiṭ to Tha`labiyyah, where the (Baghdād) Mecca road is joined<sup>1</sup>. —From Wāsiṭ to Sha`sha`ah 30 miles, thence to `Ayṣī 32 miles, thence to Dhāt-al-`Ayn 26 miles, thence to Sha- bīyah 26 miles, thence to Akhādīd 30 miles, thence to Kharjā 30 miles, thence to Sūyah 27 miles, thence to Līnah 30 miles, thence to Tha`labiyyah 25 miles. Total from Wāsiṭ to Tha`la- biyyah 256 miles, which make 85 leagues and 1 mile. From Tha`labiyyah to Mecca, as already given, it is 164 leagues [] and 2 miles, and these figures together make 250 leagues (for the distance from Wāsiṭ to Mecca).

From Baghdād to various other towns, and first to Baṣrah.— Baghdād 6 leagues to Madāin, thence 8 to Dayr-al-`Āqūl, thence 7 to Jabbul, thence 10 to Fam-aṣ-Ṣilḥ, thence 9 to Wāsiṭ, making total of 40 leagues from Baghdād to Wāsiṭ. From Wāsiṭ it is 10 leagues to Nahrabān, thence 8 to Fārūth, thence 5 to Dayr- al-`Ummāl, thence 7 to Ḥawānīt; thence, passing from the river- bed to the Swamps, and on through the Nahr-al-Asad, after a total of 30 leagues distance, is the beginning of the Blind Tigris estuary, by which, and the Nahr Ma`qil, after 10 leagues, Baṣrah is reached; making in all from Wāsiṭ to Baṣrah 40 leagues, and from Baghdād 80 leagues.

From Baṣrah to Baḥrayn.—From Baṣrah it is 12 leagues to `Abbādān, whence 2 leagues more by fresh water to the open sea; then 70 leagues to the city of Baḥrayn. And on this course there are in the open sea two hidden mountainous reefs below the water level; these are known as `Uways and Kusayr. If a ship strikes on the summit of one of these reefs it will be wrecked. Otherwise the depth of the water on this course is from 70 to 80 fathoms. The total distance from Baṣrah to Baḥrayn is 84 leagues.

From Baṣrah to the emporium of Qays.—It is 50 leagues (from Baṣrah) to Khārak Island, thence 80 leagues to Ạl-Ān Island, thence 7 to Abrūn Island, thence 7 to the island of Chīn, which is uninhabited, and thence 7 to the emporium of Qays Island. Total: from Baṣrah to Qays 151 leagues.

From Baghdād to Iṣfahān, the largest of the cities of Persian `Irāq.—From Baghdād to Kanguvar it is 75 leagues, as has been de- tailed above (see pp. 161, 162). Then from Kanguvar it is 5 leagues to Bīdastān, thence 3 to Nihāvand city, thence 4 to Farāmurz village, thence 4 to the city of Burūjird. [] Beyond Burūjird the road to Shāpūrkhwāst turns off to the right hand, while going left from Burūjird it is 4 leagues to Ḥasanābād, thence 8 to Miyān- Rūdān, thence 3 to Minār, thence 6 to the city of Karaj. From Karaj it is 4 leagues to Dūnsūn, thence 5 to Āsan¹: here another (the more direct) road to Iṣfahān turns off to the right, while going left from Āsan it is 6 leagues to Sangān, thence 6 to Jūy-Margh- i-Kuhtar (the Canal of the Smaller Meadow), thence 7 to Ash- qurān, thence 7 to Tīrān², thence 6 to Jūy-i-Kūshk, and finally 4 leagues to Iṣfahān. Total: from Karaj to Iṣfahān it is 45 leagues, from Kanguvar 82 leagues, and from Baghdād 157 leagues³.

From Baghdād to Raḥbah of Syria.—Baghdād 3 leagues to Tall-`Aqarqūf, which is a hillock so high that it can be seen from the desert 15 leagues away; thence 8 leagues to the city of Anbār. Thence by the way across the Samawāt desert you may reach Damascus direct in ten days, it being more or less 100 leagues distant. From (Anbār, however, you go) to Raḥbah, which last is 170 leagues from Baghdād.

From Baghdād to Mosul, the largest city of Diyār Bakr⁴. — From Baghdād it is 4 leagues to Baradān, thence 5 to `Ukbarā, thence 3 to Bāḥamshā, thence 7 to Qādisīyah, thence 3 to Sāmar- rah. Total, from Baghdād to Sāmarrah 22 leagues. Then from Sāmarrah it is 2 leagues to Karkh, thence 7 to Jabultā, thence 5 to Sudaqānīyah, thence 5 to Bārimmā, thence 5 to the Bridge over the Lesser Zāb, where it flows into the Tigris, thence 12 to Ḥadīthah. This makes a total of 36 leagues from Sāmarrah to Ḥadīthah, and from Baghdād [] it is 58 leagues. From Ḥadī- thah it is 7 leagues to Banī Ṭam`ān, and 7 more to Mawṣil (Mosul), making a total of 14 leagues from Ḥadīthah to Mosul, while from Sāmarrah it is 50 leagues, and from Baghdād 72 leagues to Mosul.

The Eastern Highroad, from Sulṭāniyyah to the furthest limit of Īrān on the Oxus, being 347 leagues.

From Sulṭāniyyah to Ray and Varāmīn.—From Sulṭāniyyah in 5 leagues to the village of Quhūd, which the Mongols call Ṣāin Qal`ah, thence 4 to the city of Abhar, thence 4 to Fārisjīn, thence— with the city of Qazvīn lying 4 leagues distant on the left hand— in 6 leagues to Sūmīqān, which the Mughāls call Āq Khwājah<sup>1</sup>. Beyond this place the way divides; to the right one road turns off, going to Sagzābād, while the main road (towards Khurāsān) continues onward, going through Sunqurābād. From Sūmīqān it is 5 leagues to the village of Mārīn, thence 8 to Dahand<sup>2</sup>, thence 5 to Sunqurābād, thence 5 to Dīh Khātūn, thence 5 to the Place of Martyrdom (Mashhad of Shāh `Abd-al-`Aẓīm), thence 3 to the city of Ray, making a total of 50 leagues from Sulṭāniyyah to Ray. From Ray to Varāmīn it is 6 leagues.

From Varāmīn to Rubāṭ Mihmān-Dūst.—From Varāmīn it is 6 leagues to the Rubāṭ of Khumārtakīn³, thence 6 to Khuvār of Ray, which is called Maḥallah-i-Bāgh (the Garden-Place), thence 6 to Dīh Namak (Salt Village), thence 6 to Rās-al-Kalb (Dog’s Head)⁴, thence 6 to Dīh Surkh (Red Village), thence 4 to Samnān; and from Sulṭāniyyah hither it is 90 leagues. From Samnān it is 7 leagues to Rubāṭ Āhuvān, thence 7 to Rubāṭ Hurmuz, also known as Jarm-Jūy (Hot-stream), thence 6 to Dāmghān. Total: from Samnān to Dāmghān 20 leagues, and from Varāmīn 54 leagues, [] and from Sulṭāniyyah 110 leagues. Then from Dāmghān it is 6 leagues to Ḥaddādah, otherwise known as Mihmān-Dūst⁵ (Guest-friend). From this place one road branches to the right, going direct to Nīshāpūr by Sabzavār; while to the left is the highroad which passes through Jājarm.

From Mihmān-Dūst to Nīshāpūr by way of Jājarm.—From Ḥaddādah it is 7 leagues to the city of Busṭām, from Dāmghān to Busṭām it being 13 leagues, from Samnān 33, from Varāmīn 67, and from Sulṭāniyyah 123 leagues. At Busṭām the roads divide again, one road leading to Nīshāpūr, while another turns off to Khwārazm. On the road to Nīshāpūr from Busṭām it is 7 leagues to Maghz¹, thence 7 to Sulṭāniyyah village (or Dih-i- Sulṭān), thence 3 to Rubāṭ Savanj, and thence 6 to Jājarm. Total: from Busṭām to Jājarm it is 23 leagues, from Dāmghān 36, from Samnān 56, from Varāmīn 90, and from Sulṭāniyyah 146. From Jājarm it is 8 leagues to the village of Āzadvār, the birthplace of Khwājah Shams-ad-Dīn Muḥammad Ṣāḥib Dīvān, thence 4 to Khūrāshāh, thence 3 to Baḥrābād village, the abode of Shaykh Sa`d-ad-Dīn of Ḥamāh, thence 5 to Barzātābād, thence 4 to Tūdah (or Nūdah), thence 8 to Ṭāqān-Kūh, thence 6 to Rubāṭ Būzinagān at the village of Aḥmadābād, and thence 4 leagues in to Nīshāpūr. Total: from Jājarm to Nīshāpūr it is 42 leagues, from Busṭām 65, from Dāmghān 78, from Varāmīn 132, and from Sulṭāniyyah 188 leagues.

From Nīshāpūr to Sarakhs.—From Nīshāpūr it is 7 leagues to Dīh Bād, [] whence the road to Herāt branches to the right hand: and from Dīh Bād, turning left, it is 5 leagues to Khā- kistar village, thence 3 to Rubāṭ Sangbast, thence 6 to Rubāṭ Māhī, thence 7 to Rubāṭ Tūrān (or Nūrān); thence in 7 leagues, across two passes each of half a league, you go to Rubāṭ Ābgīnah, thence in 6 leagues you come to the city of Sarakhs. Total from Nīshāpūr to Sarakhs 41 leagues.

From Sarakhs by the road through Balkh to the Oxus, on the furthest limit of Īrān.—From Sarakhs it is 9 leagues to Rubāṭ Ja`farī, thence 7 to Mīl `Omarī, thence 7 to Rubāṭ Abū Nu`aym, thence 5 leagues across the desert sands with no water to Āb-i-Shūr, thence 2 to Diz Hind, and thence 5 to the city of Marv- ar-Rūd. Total: from Sarakhs to the city of Marv-ar-Rūd it is 35 leagues, from Nīshāpūr 76, from Dāmghān 154, from Varāmīn 208, and from Sulṭāniyyah 264 leagues.

From Marv-ar-Rūd it is 7 leagues to Rubaṭ-i-Sulṭān, thence 5 to the village of Kūchābād: the city of Ṭāliqān lying 6 leagues distant on the right hand of the road. From Kūchābād it is 7 leagues to Āb-i-Garm (Hot Spring), thence 5 to Kabūtar-khānah, thence 7 to Masjid Rāzān, thence in 7 leagues—the city of Fāryāb lying 2 leagues distant on the right of the road—to Astānah, thence 6 to Rubāṭ Ka`b, thence 9 leagues across a waterless plain to the city of Shubūrqān, thence it is 2 leagues to the village of Sulbarān, thence 9 to Rubāṭ `Alawī (the Alid Guardhouse), thence 1 league to Dastagird, thence 5 to the ham- let at [] the Bridge of Jamūkhiyān, thence 2 leagues in to the city of Balkh. Total: from Marv-ar-Rūd to Balkh it is 72 leagues, from Sarakhs 107 leagues, from Nīshāpūr 147, from Dām- ghān 225, from Varāmīn 279, and from Sulṭāniyyah 335 leagues.

From the city of Balkh it is 6 leagues to Siyāh-Kūh (the Black Hill), and thence in 6 leagues you come to the Oxus river over against Tirmid: making a total from Balkh to the Oxus of 12 leagues: while from Marv-ar-Rūd it is 84 leagues, from Sarakhs 119, from Nīshāpūr—by this road—159, from Dāmghān 237, and from Sulṭāniyyah to the Oxus 347 leagues.

From Busṭām to Khwārazm (Urganj) by way of Jurjān and Dihistān.—From Busṭām by the pass called Nardibān-Pāyah it is 7 leagues to Dih Ganj, thence 6 to the village of Mīlābād, thence 5 to Mūsā-ābād village, thence 5 to the city of Jurjān. Total: from Busṭām to Jurjān 23 leagues, from Dāmghān 36, from Varāmīn 90, and from Sulṭāniyyah 146 leagues. From Jurjān there are two roads to the (northern) frontier—one direct by the waterless desert, the other by Dihistān. By this last from Jurjān it is 9 leagues to Bāraz Rūd, thence 7 to the village of Muḥammadābād, thence 7 to Dihistān¹. Total: from Jurjān to Dihistān 23 leagues, from Dāmghān 59, from Varāmīn 113, and from Sulṭāniyyah 169 leagues.

From Dihistān going across the Desert it is 7 leagues to Rubāṭ [] Gazbīnī (or Kursī), thence 9 to Rubāṭ Abū-l-`Abbās, thence 7 to Rubāṭ Ibn Ṭāhir, and thence 7 to the city of Farā- vah². From Farāvah it is 8 leagues to Rubāṭ Khisht-i-Pukhtah, thence 8 to Khūshāb Dān, thence 7 to Rubāṭ Ṭaghmāj, thence 7 to Kārvān-gāh, thence 9 to Rubāṭ Sarhang, thence 7 to Minārah- gāh, thence 8 to Saīl-Balī, thence 7 to Mushk Mabnā, thence 9 to Rubāṭ Maryam, thence 8 to the town of New Khwārazm, thence 6 to New Ḥalam (or Khulm), and thence 4 leagues to Urganj, the capital of Khwārazm³. Total: from Dihistān to Urganj 110 leagues, from Jurjān 133, from Dāmghān 169, from Varāmīn 223, and from Sulṭāniyyah 279 leagues.

Nīshāpūr to Herāt.—From Nīshāpūr in 7 leagues to Dīh-Bād⁴, where the road to Sarakhs already given (p. 169) goes off to the left. From Dīh-Bād it is 5 leagues to Rubāṭ Badi`ī, thence 7 to Farhādān village, thence 7 to Sa`īdābād village, thence 5 to Dīh Khusraw, thence 7 to the city of Pūchkān (or Būzjān)¹. Total, from Nīshāpūr to Pūchkān it is 38 leagues; and from here roads go off to Herāt, Qāyin, Bākharz and Sarakhs. On the Herāt road it is, from Pūchkān, 6 leagues to Gulābād village, thence 10 to Kūshk Manṣūr, thence 6 to the city of Fūshanj (or Būshanj), and thence 8 leagues to Herāt. [] Total: from Pūchkān to Herāt it is 30 leagues, from Nīshāpūr 68, from Dāmghān to Herāt by the road already detailed it is 146 leagues, from Varāmīn to Herāt 200, and from Sulṭāniyyah 256 leagues.

Nīshāpūr to Turshīz and Quhistān². —From Nīshāpūr it is 5 leagues to Rubāṭ Sih Dīh (Guardhouse of the Three Villages), thence 4 to Rubāṭ Nūr-Khān, thence 3 to Chāh Siyāh (Black Pit), thence 5 to the village of Dāyah, and this stage goes through a populous, well-watered country, where are eight villages; thence 4 to Dīh Murd, and thence 7 leagues to Turshīz. Total from Nīshāpūr to Turshīz it is 28 leagues; then from Turshīz it is 25 leagues to Tūn, and 36 to Qāyin, and likewise 36 to Pūchkān.

Herāt to (Zaranj, the capital of) Sīstān³. —Herāt one march to Jāmān, thence the same to Kūh-i-Siyāh (Black Hill), thence the same to Qanāt Sarāy, thence the same to Khāstān (or Jāstān), which is a dependency of Asfuzār, thence the same to Kūstān, thence the same to Darah, thence the same to the city of Farah, thence the same to Pūl-i-Rūd-i-Farah (Bridge over the Farah river), thence the same to Sirishk, thence the same to Kanjar, thence the same to Bust, thence the same to Juvayn, thence the same to Bashtar, thence in 4 leagues you come to, and cross, the Hirmand river to Karkūyah, and thence in 3 leagues to (Zaranj, capital of) Sīstān. Total from Herāt to Zaranj it is 15 marches, which by Ibn Khurdādbih is given as equivalent to 80 leagues; other authorities, however, give it as only 60 leagues’ march from Herāt to Zaranj.

Herāt to Marv.—From Herāt [] it is 5 leagues to Sagābād, thence 5 to Bādghīsh, thence 5 to Bavvan, thence 5 to Marghzār Darrah, thence 8 to Bāghchī Shūr, thence 5 to Lūs-rūd, thence 4 leagues to Marv-ar-Rūd⁴. Total from Herāt to Marv-ar-Rūd it is 37 leagues. Then from Marv-ar-Rūd it is 5 leagues to Qaṣr Aḥnaf ibn Qays, thence 4 to Khawrāt (Khawrzān or Khūrāb), thence 6 to Asadābād (or Astarābād), thence 7 to Qarīnayn, thence 5 to Yaḥyā-ābād, thence 7 to Mahdī-ābād, thence 6 to Fāz, and thence 7 leagues to the city of Marv¹. Total from Marv-ar-Rūd to Marv 47 leagues, and from Herāt 84 leagues.

From Marv to Balkh.—From Marv to Marv-ar-Rūd it is 47 leagues by the road that has just been described. Then from Marv-ar-Rūd it is 5 leagues to Araskan, thence 7 to Aṣrāb, thence 6 to Ganjābād, thence 6 to Ṭāliqān, thence 5 to Kasḥān, thence 5 to Arghūn in the district of Jūzjān, thence 5 to Qaṣr Ḥūt, also in the district of Jūzjān, thence 5 to Fāryāb, thence 9 to Qāḥ, thence 9 to Shubūrqān, thence 6 to Ṣidrah, thence 5 to Dastagīr, thence 4 to `Awd, and thence it is 3 leagues to Balkh². Total from Marv-ar-Rūd to Balkh is 80 leagues, while from Marv it is 127 leagues.

Marv to (Urganj, the capital of) Khwārazm.—Marv in 5 leagues to Dih Saqrī, thence 2 to Dih Ābdān Ganj, thence 8 to Rubāṭ Sūrān, [] thence 5 to Chāh Khāk (Dry Well), thence 7 to Chāh Ṣāchī, thence 7 to Chāh Hārūn; thence in 7 leagues—of which 2000 paces are across the Moving Sands—to Rubāṭ-i-Naw- Shāgird, thence 7 to Sagābād, thence 6 to Rubāṭ Ṭāhirī, thence 5 to Rubāṭ Būdīnah, thence crossing the frontier of Khwārazm in 9 leagues to the city of Jaqarband, thence 7 to Darghān, a city of Khwārazm, thence 5 to Dahān-i-Shīr (the Guardhouse of the Lion’s Mouth), where precipitous rocks form the Narrows of the Oxus, which rushes through between them; thence 4 to Sadūr, thence 10 to Hazārasp city, thence 9 to Dih Azraq, thence 7 to Rakhushmīthan, thence 6 to Andarāstān, thence 2 to the city of Nuzvār, and thence in 6 leagues to the city of Urganj, the capital of Khwārazm³. Total, from Marv to Khwārazm by this road it is 124 leagues.

The Northern Highroad, from Sulṭāniyyah to Bāb-al-Abwāb⁴

(Gate of Gates), on the furthest frontier of Īrān: and Bāb-al- Abwāb the Mongols call Dimūr Qāpī (the Iron Gate, otherwise Darband).

Sulṭāniyyah to Ardabīl.—Sulṭāniyyah in 5 leagues to Zanjān; from here one road goes off to Tabrīz, Marāghah, Armenia and Rūm (Asia Minor), while another road turns off to Ardabīl and Sarāv. By the Ardabīl road you go in 7 leagues to the village of Tūt (or Būb) Suvārī, thence 7 to the city of Kāghadh Kunān, thence by the Pass of Burūlaz on the river Safīd-Rūd in 6 leagues to the villages of Sanjīdah and Khalkhāl, thence 6 to the village of Tālish, and then 6 to the city of Ardabīl¹. [] Total from Sul- ṭāniyyah to Ardabīl 37 leagues.

From Ardabīl to Qarābāgh of Arrān.—From Ardabīl it is 8 leagues to Rubāṭ Arshad, thence 8 to the village of Varanq. To the left hand, and to the westward², one league distant, lies Barzand, formerly a city, now a mere village; and thence it is 4 leagues on to Bājarvān, formerly a city, now only a village³. Total: from Ardabīl to Bājarvān it is 20 leagues, and from Sul- ṭāniyyah 57 leagues. From Bājarvān to Maḥmūdābād of Gāv- bārī, the road goes after this wise. Bājarvān in 8 leagues to Pīlsuvār, thence 6 to Jūy-i-Naw (New Canal), and thence 6 to Maḥmūdābād Gāvbārī. Total: from Bājarvān to Maḥmūdābād 20 leagues, from Ardabīl 40 leagues, and from Sulṭāniyyah 77 leagues.

The Qarābāgh Road.—From Bājarvān it is 7 leagues to the village of `Alī Beg, thence 6 to the village of Bakrābād, and thence 2 to the bank of the river Aras, which is the frontier of Qarābāgh. Total: from Bājarvān to Qarābāgh 15 leagues, from Ardabīl 35, and from Sulṭāniyyah 72 leagues.

From Qarābāgh to Ganjah.—From Qarābāgh to the village of Har it is 3 leagues, thence 5 to Gharq, thence 4 to the village of Labandān, thence 3 to Bāzārchūq, thence 4 to the city of Bardā`, thence 1 to the city of Jūzbīq, thence 4 to Dih Iṣfahānī, thence 5 to Khānqāh Shutur, and thence 5 to Ganjah city. Total: from Qarābāgh to Ganjah 34 leagues, from Ardabīl 69, and from Sulṭāniyyah it is 106 leagues. From Ganjah it is 2 leagues to the city of Shamkūr, now in ruins, thence 3 to Yūrt-Shādāq- Bān, [] thence 6 to the Aqtavān river, thence 5 to Yām, and thence 4 leagues to the city of Tiflīs¹. Total: Ganjah to Tiflīs 20 leagues, from Qarābāgh 54, from Ardabīl 89, while from Sulṭāniyyah it is 126 leagues.

From Qarābāgh to Tabrīz, by way of Āhar.—From the bank of the river Aras, which is the frontier of Qarābāgh, to Bājarvān it is, as has already been said, 15 leagues. Thence it is 4 leagues to Barzand, thence 6 to Rubāṭ-i-Ayvān, built by the Vazīr Khwājah Tāj-ad-Dīn `Alī Shāh Tabrīzī, thence 8 to the village of Bahlatān<sup>2</sup>, known as the village of the Ṣāḥib Dīvān, thence in 8 leagues, passing the Rubāṭ (Guardhouse) built by the Vazīr `Alī Shāh aforesaid, standing in the valley called Darrah Farū- jāy, to the city of Āhar; thence in 6 leagues by the Pass of Gūkchah-Mīl (the Blue Pillar), in which stand two Guardhouses —one the Rubāṭ built by Khwājah Sa`d-ad-Dīn of Sāvah, the other by Amīr Niẓām-ad-Dīn Yaḥyā of Sāvah—to the village of Armīnān (or Arminiyān); and thence, passing another Rubāṭ built by the Vazīr `Alī Shāh aforesaid at the stage of Yaldūq (or Baldūq), it is 8 leagues into Tabrīz³. Total, from Qarābāgh to Tabrīz it is 55 leagues.

The Western Highroad.—From Sulṭāniyyah to Qūnīyah of Rūm (Asia Minor) at the furthest frontier of Īrān it is 301 leagues.

Sulṭāniyyah to Tabrīz.—Sulṭāniyyah in 5 leagues to Zanjān, thence 6 to Rubāṭ Nikbāy built by the Vazīr Khwājah Tāj-ad- Dīn `Alī Shāh, thence 7 leagues to Sarcham; in this stage a Rubāṭ has been built by the Vazīr Khwājah Ghiyāth-ad-Dīn Amīr Muḥammad Rashīdī, and another Rubāṭ has been built here by [] his brother Khwājah Jalāl-ad-Dīn. Total (from Sulṭāniyyah to Sarcham), 18 leagues. From this stage a road goes off to the left to Marāghah, while the road to the right leads to Miyānij. From Sarcham, by the pass it is 6 leagues to Miyānij, thence 6 to the village of Turkmān Kandī called Dayr Kharrān, which formerly was a city, thence 4 to the village of Sankalābād, thence 4 to the city of Ūjān, thence 4 by a pass to Sa`īdābād, and thence in 4 leagues to the city of Tabrīz. Total from Sulṭāniyyah to Tabrīz 46 leagues.

Tabrīz to Arzan-ar-Rūm.—From Tabrīz it is 11 leagues to Marand, thence 12 to Khuvī (Khoi), thence 6 to Shakmābād, thence 5 to Naw-Shahr (New-Town), thence 3 to Band-i-Māhī, thence 8 to Arjīsh, thence 8 to Malāzjird, thence 10 to Khanūs, thence 5 to the Pass of Āq Aftan, thence 5 to Basīn, thence 6 leagues to Arzan-ar-Rūm (Erzerum). Total (from Tabrīz to Arzan-ar-Rūm) 79 leagues.

From Arzan-ar-Rūm to Arzanjān.—From Arzan-ar-Rūm it is 10 leagues to Asjah of the district of Vasīrjān, thence 10 to Khūmān Qubūḥ at the foot of the pass, thence 4 to Arzanjān. Total: from Arzan-ar-Rūm to Arzanjān 24 leagues, and from Tabrīz by the winter road (just described) it is 103 leagues, and from Sulṭāniyyah it is 149 leagues.

From Arzanjān to Sīvās.—From Arzanjān it is 5 leagues to the village of Khwājah Aḥmad, thence 7 to Arzanjak, thence 8 to Āq-Shahr, thence 5 to Akarsūk, [] thence 8 to Zārah, thence 10 to Rubāṭ Khwājah Aḥmad, and thence it is 4 leagues to Sīvās¹. Total: from Arzanjān to Sīvās is 47 leagues, from Arzan-ar-Rūm 71 leagues, from Tabrīz 150, and from Sulṭāniyyah 196 leagues.

The Highroad going diagonally, south-east from Sulṭāniyyah to Qays (Island) at the frontier of Īrān: distance in total 254 leagues.

Sulṭāniyyah to Sāvah.—From Sulṭāniyyah to the village of Sagzābād as already described (p. 168) it is 5 stages, or 24 leagues, and here the highroad towards Khurāsān branches off. From Sagzābād it is 6 leagues to Rubāṭ Ḥājib Ḥasan, thence 7 to Rubāṭ Dawānīq, thence 5 to the city of Sāvah. Total from Sulṭāniyyah to Sāvah 42 leagues; and Sāvah stands at the beginning of many roads.

Sāvah to Kāshān.—From Sāvah it is 4 leagues to Āvah, thence 6 to Qum, thence 12 to Kāshān. Total, from Sāvah to Kāshān it is 22 leagues.

From Kāshān to Iṣfahān.—From Kāshān it is 8 leagues to the village of Quhrūd, thence 6 to the village of Wāsiṭah, thence it is 6 leagues to the Rubāṭ (Guardhouse) of Mūrchah Khūrd, and 8 on to the village of Sīn: or else from Wāsiṭah it is 12 leagues direct to Sīn by the Miyānī Road, but on this way there are no habitations; and from the village of Sīn it is 4 leagues to Iṣfahān city. Total: from Kāshān to Iṣfahān 32 leagues, from Sāvah 54, and from Sulṭāniyyah it is 96 leagues.

Iṣfahān to Yazdikhwāst.—Iṣfahān in 3 leagues to the village of Iṣfahānak, thence 5 to [] the village of Mahyār on the frontier of Fārs, thence 6 to Qūmishah city; total from Iṣfahān to Qūmishah 14 leagues. From Qūmishah it is 5 leagues to the village of Rūdkān¹, and thence 7 to Yazdikhwāst village. Total: from Qūmishah to Yazdikhwāst 12 leagues, and from Iṣfahān 26 leagues. From Yazdikhwāst the winter road down to Band-i- `Aḍudī turns off to the left, while the (shorter, western, or) sum- mer road is to the right, by Kūshk-i-Zard.

From Yazdikhwāst by the summer road to Shīrāz.—From Yazdikhwāst in 8 leagues to Dih Girdū, thence 7 to Kūshk-i- Zard, thence 5 by the Girīvah-i-Mādar wa Dukhtar (Mother and Daughter Pass) to the Rubāṭ of Ṣalāḥ-ad-Dīn in the plain called Dasht Rūn, thence 3 to the Guardhouse at the Bridge (over the upper Kur river, near Ūjān) called Pūl-i-Shahriyār, thence 7 leagues through the very stony Pass of Māyin to the town of Māyin, and all the roads leading to Māyin are very stony. Thence in 4 leagues—passing by the Castles of Iṣṭakhr and Shikastah, which overhang the road on the left hand—to Pūl-i-Naw (New Bridge, over the Kur), thence 5 to Dih Gurg (Wolf Village), and thence in 5 leagues to the city of Shīrāz. Total: from Yazdi- khwāst to Shīrāz 44 leagues, from Qūmishah 56, from Iṣfahān 70, from Kāshān 102 leagues, and from Sulṭāniyyah 166 leagues.

Shīrāz to (the Island of) Qays on the frontier of Īrān.— Shīrāz 5 leagues to Shahrak village, thence 5 to the city of Kavār, thence by the Girīvah-i-Zanjīrān (Pass of Chains), leaving Fīrūzābād 7 leagues distant away to the right hand, in 5 leagues to Rubāṭ Jamkān, thence 5 to Maymand, thence 6 to the be- ginning of the Ṣīmkān District, [] thence 6 to the end of this District, thence in 7 leagues to Kārzīn by the Pass of Sar- i-Safīd (the White Head), thence it is 5 leagues to Lāghir, thence 6 to the Fāryāb District, thence 6 to the city of Khunj, thence 5 to Āb-Anbār-i-Kinār, thence 5 to Hurmuz, thence in 6 leagues by many steep passes to the village of Dārūk, thence 6 to Māhān, thence in 6 leagues by the Pass of Lardak to Hūzū on the sea-shore. From here you cross the water in 4 leagues to the city of Qays (on the island of that name)². Total: from the city of Shīrāz to Qays 88 leagues, from Iṣfahān 158 leagues, from Kāshān 190, from Sāvah 212 leagues, and from Sulṭāniyyah 254 leagues.

Remainder of the (sea) journey in this direction: from Qays to Sarandīb (Ceylon) where Adam fell (to earth from Paradise).— From Qays (island) it is 18 leagues to the Island of Abarkāfān, thence 7 to the Island of Urmūṣ, thence in 70 leagues you come to the Island of Bār on the frontier between Fārs and Sind, and thence it is 80 to Daybul; this lies 2 leagues from the mouth of the Mihrān (Indus), which is the great river of Sind. Thence it is 40 leagues to Ankīr (or Utakīn), where begins the kingdom of Hind (India), thence 2 leagues to Kūlī, thence 18 to Sindān, thence 50 leagues to Malībar, thence 20 to Ballīn. From Ballīn you cross a great arm (of the sea), and in 10 leagues reach Ceylon¹. Total: from Qays to Ceylon 317 leagues, [] from Shīrāz 405, from Iṣfahān 475, from Kāshān 507, from Sāvah 529, and from Sulṭāniyyah 571 leagues.

Shīrāz to Kāzirūn.—Shīrāz in 5 leagues to the Wall of Ḥājjī Qiwām, thence 8 to Dasht Arzin village, thence 6 to the Rubāṭ (Guardhouse) at the head of the Mālān Pass, which is very steep, thence by the Hūshanak Pass, also very steep, in 3 leagues to Kāzirūn city². Total from Shīrāz to Kāzirūn 22 leagues.

Shīrāz to Hurmūz.—Shīrāz in 12 leagues to Sarvistān, thence 8 to the city of Fasā, thence 6 to Tīmaristān village, thence 8 to Dārkān (or Zārkān). From here turning to the left the road goes to (the capital of) Shabānkārah; while turning to the right the road goes on to Hurmūz, and from Shīrāz to Dārkān it is 34 leagues. From Dārkān it is 10 leagues to Dārābgird, thence 3 to the village of Khayr, thence 6 to Shabankān, thence 3 to Rustāq, and thence 3 leagues to Burk (Purg or Forg); from here it is 6 leagues to Tāshlū, thence 6 to Tārum, thence to the frontier of the Lār Province at Janād (or Chinār) it is 4 leagues, thence 48 to Chāh Chil, thence 8 to Tūsar on the sea-coast, whence by water it is 4 leagues to the Island of Hurmūz³. Total from Shīrāz to Hurmūz it is 95 leagues.

Shīrāz to (the capital of) Shabānkārah.—From Shīrāz to Dārkān it is, as already said, 34 leagues, and thence to the city of Īg, which is the capital of Shabānkārah, it is 4 leagues; [] making a total of 38 leagues.

Shīrāz to Kirmān by way of Shahr-i-Bābak.—Shīrāz in 8 leagues to Dāriyān, thence 8 to Khurramah, thence 4 to Khūlan- jān, thence 6 to Kand (or Kīd), thence 6 to Khayrah, thence 5 to Chāh `Uqbah, thence 8 to Bulangān, thence 8 to Chāhak, thence 7 to Sarūshak, thence in 7 leagues to Shahr-i-Bābak. Total from Shīrāz to Shahr-i-Bābak 67 leagues. Shahr-i-Bābak in 8 leagues to Kūshk Na`m, thence 4 to Abān, thence 4 to the city of Sīrjān, making a total of 16 leagues from Shahr-i-Bābak to Sīrjān, and from Shīrāz 83 leagues. From Sīrjān it is 10 leagues to Bakān (or Lakān) and thence 8 on to Kirmān (City), making a total of 101 leagues from Shīrāz to Kirmān¹.

Shīrāz to Abarqūh.—Shīrāz in 5 leagues to the village of Zargān, thence 3 to the dam called Band-i-Amīr on the Kur river, thence 3 to the village of Kinārah in the districts of Ḥafrak and Marvdasht, thence 3 to Fārūq, thence 3 to Kamīn, thence 4 to Mashhad-i-Mādar-i-Sulaymān (Shrine of the Mother of Solomon, namely, the Tomb of Cyrus), thence 6 to Rubāṭ Mashk, thence 12 to the city of Abarqūh. Total from Shīrāz to Abarqūh 39 leagues.

Abarqūh to Yazd.—From Abarqūh in 13 leagues to Dih Shīr (Lion Village), thence 6 to Dīh Jawz (Nut village), thence 4 to Qal`at-i-Majūs (Magian’s Castle), thence in 5 leagues to the city of Kathah or Yazd, standing in its Jūmah (District, modern Ḥūmah)¹. Total: from Abarqūh to [] Yazd 28 leagues, and from Shīrāz 67 leagues. From Yazd on to Kirmān (City) it is 58 leagues, and from Shīrāz to Kirmān, by this road, it is 125 leagues.

Shīrāz to Nawbanjān.—Shīrāz in 5 leagues to Juvaym, thence 5 to Khullār, thence 5 to Kharrārah, thence 4 to (Dīh) Gawz (Nut Village), which is of the district of Tīr Murdān, thence 3 to Kuz- gān, thence 3 to Nawbanjān. Total from Shīrāz to Nawbanjān 25 leagues².

Nawbanjān to Tustar, the capital of Khūzistān.—From Naw- banjān it is 4 leagues to Khābdān, thence 6 to Kishish, thence 5 to Gunbad Mallaghān, thence 4 to Chāhah, thence 4 to Khabs, thence 6 to Furzuk, thence 4 to Arrajān, and 4 leagues on to Bustānak, which is the frontier between Fārs and Khūzistān³. Total, from Nawbanjān to Bustānak 37 leagues, and from Shīrāz 62 leagues.

The Highroad to the South-west.—From Sulṭāniyyah to the castle called Qal`ah Bīrah⁴, which is at the frontier of Īrān, it is 265 leagues: and Allah alone is all knowing of the Ways.

Cause of mountains; advantages therefrom. Abū Qubays and Uḥud. Mount Argaeus. Alvand. The Alburz range. Mount Bīsutun. Mount Jūdī. Mount Damāvand. Rastū and its snakes. Mount Rāsmand and the Kītū Meadow. The Sāvah Mountain and its Cavern. Mount Sablān. Moun- tain where Adam fell, in Ceylon. Mount Sahand. Mount Sinai. The Mountain of Qāf. The Kargas Hills. Kunābad and Raybad Mountains, mentioned in the Shāh Nāmah. Māst or Ararat. The emerald mine of Mount Muqaṭṭam. The Salt Hill of Qum

SECTION 2. Concerning the mountains of Īrān, and other famous mountains.

In philosophical works it is explained how, earth and water being mingled together, from the viscosity that is in the earth, the heat of the sun causes the same to harden, thus turning it to stone, [] even as fire bakes the clay-brick. But the sun’s heat then beginning to act on the stone, this loses its hardness and is broken up; which process continually accelerated by the succes- sion of many nights and days cracks appear, splitting the rocks, which same are thus again turned to earth. Then by the action of earthquakes mountain peaks are demolished, while by the blowing of the winds and the running waters the soft earth is carried from one place to another, yet all that is rock and hard soil will remain fixed, whereby heights and hollows are formed, and it is these heights that are the mountain ranges.

Now if there were no mountains on the face of the earth, the ground would always be moving, which same is proved by the words of the Qurān, where God says (ch. XVI. v. 15) And He hath thrown firm mountains on the earth, lest it move with you, and again (ch. LXXVIII. v. 7) He has spoken of the mountains which are its tent-stakes; and further, if the ground were always moving it would not remain a level sphere, nor would the wind blow equally everywhere across it. And but for these heights and the hollows, there would be no possibility of running waters; neither would there be the advantages found in the high cold country and the low hot lands, and the products of these two districts would not come to their perfection. Wherefore Eternal Provi- dence has so ordained that, by reason of these heights and hollows, high and low mountains have come to appear on the face of the earth, and in their midst streams, whereby these many advantages of climate are brought to pass—blessed be He who is the origin of everything, and may He be exalted who is the source of all.

We shall now set forth in alphabetical order all that is known of the mountains of the lands of Īrān, and mention some other celebrated mountains.

Abulustān Mountain. In Rūm (Asia Minor). Qazvīnī re- ports that in its midst is a gorge from which a road leads forth, and whosoever wishes to pass by this road must all the time eat bread and cheese in order to go in safety, otherwise he will turn sick by reason of the dampness of this pass. This fact is well known throughout that country.

Mount Abū Qubays. This is a great mountain of Mecca. According to the account given by Ibn `Abbās, the Prophet is reported to have said, The first mountain that God, be He exalted, set upon the earth was Abū Qubays, and there will be spread forth in its amplitude the (assembly of the Day of) Judgment.

Mount Uḥud. This is one of the famous mountains to the north of Medina. In commentaries and histories it is stated that this mountain, together with Mounts Thawr and Thabīr near Mecca, and Mount Raḍwā (near Medina), all these are but frag- ments of Mount Ṭūr (Sinai) which in the time of Moses, when God had manifested Himself unto him, were cast down here, [] as is said in the Qurān (ch. VII. v. 139), And when his Lord mani- fested Himself to the mountain He turned it to dust. How many leagues Mount Uḥud measures round is not known.

Mount Arjān. In Ṭabaristān. Qazvīnī reports that in this mountain is a spring where the water, dropping from a stone, forthwith makes figures, hexagonal, octagonal and pentagonal in shape, and otherwise, which same are petrifactions, and these the people take to use for making seals.

Mount Arjāst (Argaeus). In Asia Minor; an immensely great and high mountain, on the flanks of which stand the cities of Qayṣariyyah (Caesarea Mazaka) and Davalū. The summit of this mountain is never free from snow, and though they say that in every year for a certain number of days one can reach the summit, at most times the ascent is impossible. A great Church has been built on this mountain. What may be the number of leagues of the circuit of the mountain no one knows. Many streams flow down from its sides, which take their course through the Province of Asia Minor.

Mount Alvand (or Arvand). This lies to the south-west of Hamadān city, being a celebrated mountain, the circuit of which is 30 leagues. Its summit is never free from snow, and it is visible from a distance of 20 leagues or more away. On the summit of the mountain is a spring of water in the hard rock, and that rock is after the fashion of a building that has been thrown down upon it, and from among these rocks a little water trickles forth. This may well be seen in summer time, but in winter it is all hidden under the snow. I myself have been there: it was a Friday night, and they told me that in every week, during that one day and night, the water came forth copiously, flowing down along the ground, but on other days of the week none made its way out. Qazvīnī, when mentioning Hamadān, states that 42 streams flow down from Mount Alvand, for its other springs are beyond all count.

Ashkahrān Mountain. This is of the Iṣfahān province: it overlooks Greater Lur, and there are huge vipers here.

Alburz Mountain. This is a great range which starts from Bāb-al-Abwāb (Darband), and many other mountain chains join it, so that from Turkistān to the Ḥijāz there is but a single range, stretching for over a thousand leagues in length. Many, because of its length, count it as forming part of the Mountain of Qāf (which encircles the whole earth). On the western part of the Alburz, where the range of Gurgistān (Georgia) occurs, come the Lagzī (Lesgian) [] mountains; and here, according to the Ṣuwar-al-Aqālīm, there are so many different peoples, that seventy and more languages are spoken. Also in these mountains are many marvels. When the range comes to Shimshāṭ and Mala- ṭiyah it is called Qālīqalā. When it reaches Anṭākiyah (Antioch of Syria) and Maṣṣīṣah (Mopsuestia) it is known as Lukkām, and here it forms the barrier between Syria and the Greek Country (Asia Minor). When the range comes to between Damascus and Ḥims it is called Lubnān (Lebanon). When it gets to between Mecca and Medina it is known as `Araj. At its western end, where the range comes to Arrān and Ādharbāyjān, it is called Qafq (Caucasus); and on the confines of (Persian) `Irāq and Gīlān it is known as the Mountain of Ṭarqal Dar. When it reaches the middle parts of Qūmis and Māzandarān it is known as Mūz, for the name Māzandarān was originally Mūzāndarūn; and where it comes to the districts of Khurāsān the range is known as Sūnaj.

Alnaz Mountain. The common people say that the name originally was A`lā Nazz (the Upper Fountain), which by usage came to be shortened to Alnaz, but this assertion is not to be credited, for Alnaz is in truth a proper name. The mountain lies to the north of Qazvīn; it is very high and adjoins the other ranges of the district. There is here a Mosque, and the footsteps of many saints have come hither, for here prayers are answered. Also there are two Miḥrābs (niches) in this Mosque, and Qazvīnī reports, which same the common people here also affirm, that the tomb of Uways Qaranī¹ is in this spot. The summit of this mountain, on the side which overlooks Rūdbār, is always covered with snow.

Īlāq Mountain. In Turkistān, where there are mines of silver and gold.

Bāmdād (or Bāmdār) Mountain. In Little Lur. In the Zubdah-at-Tawārīkh¹ it is stated that there is here a stone which serves the purpose of fuel, but the smell of its smoke puts animals to flight.

Mount Bīsutun. In Kurdistān, and most famous among hills. It is very high and formed of black rocks, which rise from the plain, and there are neither foot-hills nor valleys at its base. Twenty leagues away the peak of this mountain is visible, and it is twenty leagues in circuit. On the summit of the mountain is a level space of ground, some 500 Jarībs (150 acres) in extent, where there is a spring of water with cultivated lands. In the year 711 (1311) [] by order of Ūljāytū Sulṭān, and aided by the engineers, I made a calculation to get the height of the moun- tain, and it came to equal 4800 cubits such as the tailors use (Gaz-i-Khayyāṭī). In most times clouds, from the lands round, remain in banks on the clefts of the summit of this mountain. It is possible, but by a rocky road that is difficult to pass, to get across the range. In the poem of Khusraw and Shīrīn, by Shaykh Niẓāmī of Ganjah, the following couplets occur, King Khusraw Parvīz saying to Farhād:

There is a mountain on my passage,
Which it were difficult to make a road across,
None the less, through the mountain a road must be dug,
That my coming and going may be made easy.

But the tradition is of dubious origin, and Shaykh Niẓāmī can never himself have seen the place, and must have described it by hearsay only. The fact is that on the plain below the summit of the mountain there is an abundant spring of water, sufficient to turn two or three mills, and they have hewn in the live rock a hall which stands above this spring, and it has a gallery round it: the remains here are therefore a permanent witness to (that of which Niẓāmī writes). Further, at the other end of the mountain, some six leagues distant from the great spring with its gallery, there has been built a second but smaller gallery, round two springs which gush out over against the same, and each spring is abund- ant enough to turn a mill. This place is known as the Gallery of (the Horse) Shabdīz, and round it have been sculptured the likenesses of Khusraw and Shīrīn and Farhād, also of Rustam and Isfandīyār with others; and every bolt in the armour (of Rustam) and even the silken strings of the harp (of Farhād) are all most wonderfully represented herein, so as to be easily recognised. There is also in this neighbourhood, on the Kūlkū (river), a much venerated shrine, and the common people say that this is the tomb of Uways Qaranī¹.

Barjīn Mountain. In the Qazvīn province. There is here a cavern and tunnel, by which you go down for a distance of a horse-gallop. Here it becomes extremely cold, and at the end there is a stream of running water, which lower down still becomes a river. A great wind comes from this place, and no daylight from outside can be seen, so that none can go hither without a lamp, and nobody knows what may be the condition of things at the end of the tunnel. The people of the country round obtain their mill-stones from this place.

Mount Jūdī. This lies in the district of Mosul and Jazīrah (Ibn `Omar). [] The Ark of Noah came to rest upon it, as is said in the Qurān (ch. XI. v. 46) And it was said ‘O earth! swallow up thy water’; and ‘cease O heaven’; and the water abated, and the decree was fulfilled, and the Ark rested upon Al Jūdī. Qazvīnī asserts that down to Abbasid times pieces of the Ark of Noah still rested here. Noah afterwards built on this mountain a village, known as Sūq Thamānīn (the Market of the Eighty), for there were eighty persons saved with him in the Ark, but except for Noah and his family none left descendants. Hence it is that Noah is called the second Adam.

Mount Darāk. This lies two leagues distant from Shīrāz. They have constructed here cellars for snow, and in winter they collect the snow here, which in summer they bring down to Shīrāz, and thereon the city depends for its supply.

Mount Damāvand. This is a famous mountain, so extremely high that it may be seen from a distance of 100 leagues away. It rises to the east of the province of Ray. Its summit is never free from snow, it is 20 leagues in circuit, and in height it rises to above 5 leagues. On its summit is a plain that is 100 Jarībs (30 acres) in extent, and it is covered with sand in which the foot sinks down. In the summer-time the snow on the mountain turns to ice, and in its midst much water forms. The common people say that this water is warm. There occur in this mountain many avalanches, because day after day the snow falls one layer above another, when of a sudden a piece will break off, and coming down on some man will forthwith kill him. The people here say that in these dangerous places no word must be spoken, other- wise the avalanche will fall, and hence it is their custom to be given to no talking, but to pass along quickly lest the avalanche come down on them. Qazvīnī reports that if one face of the summit becomes free of snow, so that the ground shows out black, then (in the country-side) on that flank of the mountain, which is thus become visible, there will be bloodshed. In the Ṣuwar-al-Aqālīm it is stated that (the tyrant) Zuhāk lies im- prisoned in this mountain.

The Darābjird Mountains. In the Ṣuwar-al-Aqālīm it is said that here there are found salts of all colours, white and black, green, yellow and red, also of other tints besides these mentioned.

Mount Rastū. This is on the road going to Shabānkārah, to the westward of the south-western quarter of that district. [] It is also known as the Bātīlah Mountain. Its height is three leagues. It rises up like a dome, being circular, and its circuit is sixteen leagues. The summit of this mountain is visible from most parts of the province of Fārs. Many medicinal herbs grow on its flanks, and numerous gulleys go down from its summit to its foot. At the base of the mountain is a plain, and snakes are always found on that mountain. At most times snow covers this mountain, and the snakes here are so huge that some are found to weigh even as much as 50 or 60 Mann-weight.

Mount Rāsmand. To the north of the city of Karaj; where, like Mount Bīsutun (already described), it rises up sheer from the plain, a sight to view, having at its base neither valleys nor foothills. It is of black rock, and has clouds covering it like the roof of a house. To the north of this mountain lies the Meadow of Kītū, one of the most famous of the meadow lands of (Persian) `Irāq, being six leagues in the length by three leagues in the breadth. The spring named after King Khusraw flows forth in the midst of these meadows, at the mountain foot. The mountain itself has a cir- cuit of ten leagues.

Rāmand Mountain. This lies to the south-west of Qasvīn, and to the north of Khirqān. It has a settled population, for there are villages and cultivated fields here. It is a hill of no great height, but it is famous, being often mentioned in the Pahlavī dialect poems, as, for instance, in the couplet

Good is Mount Alvand, with Damāvand,
But how (ill) they appear without Mount Rāmand.

Mount Raqīm. In Asia Minor, on the confines of `Ammū- rīyah (Amorion). It is mentioned in the Qurān, and the Cavern of the (Seven Sleepers, or) Companions of the Cave was in this mountain. Their story is well known, and need not be here re- peated. This mountain is eighteen leagues in circuit.

Rānik (or Zānik) Mountain. In Turkistān; there are here gold and silver mines.

Zardah Mountain. In Luristān. The upper waters of the Jūy-i-Sard (Cold River) which is the chief source of both the Zindah Rūd or river of Iṣfahān, and of the Dujayl or Tustar river, arise in this mountain.

Kūh-i-Zar, or Gold Mountain. Near Dāmghān. There is a gold mine here, from which it has its name.

Sāvah Mountain. This lies a day’s march from Sāvah, on the frontier of Khirqān, near the shrine of Dhū-l-Kifl¹. It is very high, [] and Qazvīnī relates that in this mountain is a cavern after the manner of a hall, where there are sculptures and numerous images. At the back of the cavern is a tank, and above this are four stones, which are each of the form of a woman’s breast, and from all these continually water drops, being collected in the tank below. This water, in spite of long standing, never becomes corrupt, and it is a specific for many diseases, as the people of Sāvah well know and can bear witness to.

Mount Sablān. In Ādharbāyjān, and one of the most famous of mountains. The towns of Ardabīl, Sarāh, Pīshkīn, Ābād, Arjāq, and Khiyāv lie round its base. It is a very high moun- tain, being visible from a distance of 50 leagues, and it is 30 leagues in circuit. Its summit is never free from snow; and on the summit is a spring, the water of which for the most part is always frozen to ice by reason of the great cold. Qazvīnī writes that, according to the Traditions, the Prophet once said, He who recites (the verses of the Qurān, ch. XXX. 16, 17, 18) saying ‘Glorify God therefore, when ye reach the evening and when ye rise at morn: And to Him be praise in the heavens and on the earth: He bringeth forth the living out of the dead, and He bringeth forth the dead out of the living: and He quickeneth the earth when dead. Thus is it that ye too shall be brought forth’; (verily for him who recites this) God will write vouchsafing him favours hereafter even so numerous as are the snowflakes which fall on Mount Sablān. It was said to him: O Prophet of God, but where is Sablān? He answered, It is a moun- tain between Armenia and Ādharbāyjān, on which is a spring of water, one of the springs of Paradise; also a tomb which is a tomb of one of the Prophets. In the History of Maghrib² it is stated that this spring is of extremely cold water, but that all round it are springs from which flows forth water that is boiling hot.

Mount Sarāhand. In (Persian) `Irāq, and this lies to the south-west of the town of Abhar³.

Mountain in Sarandīb. This is one of the most famous of mountains. It is on the Island of Ceylon, in the Indian Sea, and Qazvīnī states that this was the place where Adam fell (to earth, when ejected from Paradise). In the Indian tongue it is called Dihū¹, and it is the highest of all the mountains of that region, [] being visible many days’ sail distant to sea. The footprint of Adam may be seen on a rock here, and from the great toe to the heel this is near 70 ells in length. Every day here, without there being either a storm or thunderclouds, the rain falls and washes clean from all dust this Footprint, and the people con- sider this a mark of great blessedness. All round here are mines of corundum, emery and rock crystal; also on these grounds great pieces of diamond are strewn about. Further, numberless scorpions and vipers are found here; and on the mountain-side grow aloes, with other odorous woods; also plugs of musk and civet occur, and most of the herbs here are medicinal in character. In the sea round Ceylon is the pearl fishery.

Mount Sahand. In Ādharbāyjān. The towns of Tabrīz, Marāghah, Dīh Khwārqān and Ūjān lie round its base, and its circuit is 25 leagues. Its summit is at times free from snow: and here stands the shrine of Usāmah ibn Surayk², the Companion of the Prophet, and commander of his armies. There is also here a lake.

Siyāh Kūh, the Black Mountain. In Ādharbāyjān; and at its foot lies the town of Kalanbar. It is a steep mountain and well peopled, but most of its inhabitants are highwaymen.

Mount Sīpān. It stands to the south-west of Akhlāṭ. It is very steep, is well peopled, and is visible from a distance of 50 leagues away. Its summit is never free from snow. Its circuit measures 50 leagues, and it has excellent meadow-lands.

Shaqqān Mountain. Near Jājarm, in Khurāsān. There is a cleft in this mountain from which a stream of water, sufficient to turn a couple of mills, issues forth, and it is for this reason that the mountain is called Shaqqān (or the Clefts). Qazvīnī relates that in this mountain is a cavern, and whosoever puts his head into this is overcome by the damp vapours that arise here. And in this same quarter is another mountain, where, on going up, by reason of the power of the wind, it is impossible to take notice of aught except of that strong wind, but yet when the summit is reached there is then no wind at all to be felt.

Mount Ṣūr. Qazvīnī reports that in this mountain is found a stone in which, as in a looking-glass, figures can be seen reflected. Also when this stone is broken up in water the fragments pre- serve this same peculiarity and continue to reflect things.

Ṭāriq Mountain. In Ṭabaristān. Qazvīnī relates that in this mountain is a cavern, [] where there is a platform, known as the Platform of Solomon, and they hold it in great veneration, as having been blessed by him. Now if this platform comes to be defiled by any impurity, forthwith the weather changes, lightning and storms arise, and do not abate until the place has again been purified.

Mount Ṭabarak. Near Ray. There is here a silver mine, but exactly what is expended on it, that alone does the mine produce, so no profit is made, and hence it now remains un- worked.

Ṭūr Sīnā (Mount Sinai). This is one of the most famous mountains of the world and it is many times mentioned in the Qurān. The prophet Moses here saw the Divine Light above the Bush, and spoke with God.

Mount Ghazwān. On the borders of Ṭāif. Snow and ice are found on its summit, but in no other mountain in the Arab Peninsula is this the case.

Farghānah Mountain. In the Ṣuwar-al-Aqālīm it is stated that there are here mines of turquoise, quicksilver, copper, lead, gold, naphtha, bitumen, asphalt, sal ammoniac and copperas. Also there is found here a stone (coal) which is used for fuel.

Qārin Mountain. In the Ṣuwar-al-Aqālīm a mountain of this name is said to be found in Kirmān, and the same authority states that one also exists in Ṭabaristān¹.

The Mountain of Qāf. Yāqut states that this is the mighty mountain which encircles the earth, and that from it up into the heavens is but the space of a fathom, seeing that the heavens cover it like a lid. Chapter (Fifty of the Qurān) named Qāf is an indication of its importance. The substance thereof is emerald, the blue colour of the sky being the reflection of this. Beyond lie worlds of many created things, the true condition of which no one knows, except God—be He exalted. In some of the Com- mentaries it is said that the Mountain of Qāf is itself entirely of emerald. Both Qazvīnī and Yāqūt state that the foundations of all other mountains are in connection with its foundations; and thus when God—be He exalted and glorified—is wrath with any people and would send an earthquake upon them, then His command comes to the Angel, who is in ward on Mount Qāf, that he do shake the summit and foundation of the mountain indicated to him, whereby an earthquake occurs in the country of those folk. Now the warrantry for this lies on him who has reported it, but as Mount Qāf is given to be the base of all other mountains, this has been set forth to explain its condi- tions as here written down, although indeed it is far from being credible.

Mount Qabalah. This lies between the provinces of Arrān and Gurjistān (Georgia).

Qafṣ Mountain. In Kirmān; and in the Ṣuwar-al-Aqālīm it is stated that [] this is the home of the Balūch people, who are most of them highwaymen.

Kargas Mountains (the Vulture Hills). In the Great Desert, in the neighbourhood of the city of Naṭanz, and they adjoin no other mountains. They are ten leagues in circuit, being very high and steep; and by reason of their height (no other birds but) Vultures (called Kargas) can fly over them; and it is by reason of this fact that the hills have their name. Among these hills there is a quagmire (covered by salt-efflorescence) which from afar appears like water. Travellers, catching sight of this and taking it for water, go near, they suffering extremity of thirst being in need of the water; whereupon they are engulfed by the quagmire and so come to their destruction¹.

The Kirmān Mountains. Qazvīnī states that they find here a stone (coal) which, like wood, catches fire easily, and hence is used for fuel. There are also in these mountains silver mines.

Gulistān Mountain. This is of the Mūghān district. It covers a league square of ground, and there are wild flowers here of great sweetness. It is said that in former times the Ismailian (Assassins) made a Paradise (or Garden) of this place, and it was one of their pleasure grounds.

Gulistān (or Gulshān) Mountain of Ṭūs. There is here a cavern that is like a hall, and a passage leads from it which when you have gone down some way you come to the light, and here is an enclosure where there is a spring. The water from this, when it has flowed some way from its source, petrifies. On beyond this spring a wind begins to blow, which prevents any further progress down the passage.

Kunābad and Raybad Mountains. These are two hills, standing opposite the one to the other, in the province of Quhis- tān. Firdawsī refers to them in the verse²:

Dost thou choose the battleground in Kunābad Mount?
Or else on the side of Mount Raybad wouldst thou prefer to fight?

Kūshīd Mountain. This lies between (Persian) `Irāq and Fārs, and in the days of king Kay Khusraw a mighty dragon dwelt here, from fear of which the people had abandoned their habitations. Kay Khusraw slewthe dragon and built a Fire-temple on the spot, which afterwards came to be known as Dayr Kūshīd.

Gīlūyah Mountain. This is a celebrated district in which lie many hills, and it is counted as of the kingdom of Fārs. Among the rest is Mount Danā, and it is said that Kay Khusraw died here at a place called Damah¹. []

Mount Māst. This mountain² lies to the westward of Nakh- chivān, and at a distance of 14 leagues from that city. It is a very steep and high mountain, being visible at a distance of from 30 to 40 leagues, and its summit is never free from snow, indeed it is at most times quite hidden in the snow. The moun- tain is 30 leagues in circuit.

Mount Mūrjān. In Fārs. Qazvīnī states that in this moun- tain is a cavern, and from its roof water falls in drops, and whether one person enters or whether it be one hundred persons who go in there, all are equally drenched by the water, which falls either more or less according to their number. It is said that this is caused by a talisman.

Mount Muqaṭṭam.³ In that part of this range which is in the Ṣa`īd province of Upper Egypt there is an emerald mine, and except for this one place none other such is to be found elsewhere (in Egypt).

Nafasht Mountain. In the Fārs Nāmah⁴ this is described as in the neighbourhood of Persepolis, and here may be seen the figures in sculpture of every created object and animal, so wonder- fully wrought that any craftsman of the present time would be incapable of doing the like. And in the days of the Chosroes the Book of the Zend (Avesta) was kept on this mountain.

Kūh Namak Lān (the Salt Mountain). This lies between Āvah and Qum, being composed of dusty earth, and it adjoins no other hill. By reason of its soil being salt no snow can remain on it: and no one can get to the top, for the foot sinks down in climbing. Even with skilful treatment no salt can be obtained here that is not too bitter. It has a circuit of three leagues, but neither water nor any growing herb is found there, and it is visible from a distance ten leagues away.

Harmaz Mountain. In Tabarisṭān. Qazvīnī states that in this mountain is a cavern where there is running water. Now when any one goes there and gives a shout the water stops, but when another comes and gives a shout the water begins to flow again; so after this fashion a shout makes it flow and a shout stops it.

Mount Huwayn. In Little Lur, and there are iron mines here.

Mount Yakhtāyī. This is a mountain where many excellent things abound, for there are numberless pastures and fruit lands, houses, villages, limpid streams and springs of water. [].