Tārīḫ-i Firištah - The History of the Rise of Mohammedan Power in India, Volume 4

IT is stated in the history of Babur, that the territory of Hind (India) is confined to the first, second, and third climates, but that no part is in the fourth climate. This country is quite peculiar, and the manners of its inhabitants are very remarkable. Its towns bear little resemblance to those of other countries; but the customs of the people have some affinity with those of Yemun in Arabia, with the Bedouins, and especially with the inhabitants of Madagascar. Hind is bounded on the north by Kashmeer, whence issue the great rivers which flow to the south-west. These all unite, near Mooltan, with the river Indus, and flow in one stream to Tutta, where they disembogue into the Indian ocean. These rivers are the Sutlooj, the Beea, the Ravy, the Chunab, the Behut, and, lastly, the Sind, or Indus. The Behut used to be called the Jheelum, as at present the Sind is in some places denominated the Neelab. Besides these rivers are several other large streams issuing from those mountains, such as the Joon (Jumna), the Great Gung (or Ganges), the Kaly Nye, the Gunduk, the Surjoo, and many others, all of which streams, rising in the east, and passing through the province of Bengal, unite with the Ganges and flow into the Eastern sea. Independently of these there are other numerous rivers in Hindoostan, which do not take their rise in the mountains that form the Indian barrier. Among them we may reckon the Chum-bul, the Bunas, and the Soane, all of which unite with the Ganges, and fall into the ocean. In the Deccan are also several rivers; such as the Nur-budda, the Tapty, the Poorna, the little Gunga (Go-davery), the Krishna, the Bheema, and the Toong-budra. The three former rivers flow to the west, and the three latter eastward. So superficially do many of the rivers of the Deccan pass through the open country, that their waters might be rendered applicable to its irrigation; and although in some villages it is usual to dig channels and convey the water into their fields, it is not sufficiently practised; for the inhabitants do not appear to enjoy the sight of running streams, or to feel refreshed by breezes blowing over water. It sometimes happens, indeed, that men of rank, in travelling, prefer pitching their tents on the banks of streams, but they usually have the female apartments in the vicinity of the water.^543a

The houses of India are built like prisons, and the towns and cities are filthy and uncleanly. I must, however, except the Hydrabad of Golconda, which has lately been constructed by Mahomed Ally Kootb Shah, and which not only bears a fair comparison with the cities in other parts of the world, in appearance as well as in cleanliness, but is superior to many. The cause of this excellence arises out of the fine stream of water that flows throughout the streets and bazars, which are beautiful and wide. The shops and private houses in Hy-drabad are throughout constructed of stone and mortar, and on each side of the stream is a row of trees affording abundance of shade. India abounds with forests and extensive wildernesses, full of all sorts of trees; so much so, that these wastes seem to offer inducements, both to rajas and subjects, to revolt from the government. The agricultural population, and the abundance of cattle, in this country, exceed that of all others; but its depopulation and desolation are sudden and rapid beyond conception. This is owing principally to the inhabitants building their houses of thatch, and having their domestic utensils of earthen-ware, both of which they relinquish without remorse; so that by taking their cattle with them, and departing to some other spot, they easily construct houses like those they have deserted, and, after obtaining a few earthen vessels, they again apply themselves to husbandry.

The autumnal crops are produced in the months when the sun is in Cancer, Leo, Virgo, and Libra, and are brought forward by the rain of the monsoon; while the spring crops, which grow during the months when the sun is in Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricornus, and Aquarius, require no rain, nor the aid of streams or wells, but are brought to great perfection by the dews and the cool nights at that season of the year, a fact which has always surprised me. The air of the Deccan, owing to its proximity to the sea, and the abundance of the rain which falls, is extremely moist.

The Indians divide the year into three seasons, each having four months. These they call the hot season, the wet season, and the cool season. They calculate their months according to the revolutions of the moon; but their three seasons are rendered subservient to both the solar and lunar year. This they contrive in the following manner: — Whenever the beginning of the lunar month falls on a Tuesday, for instance, and the sun enters Leo on the fifteenth or twentieth of that month, supposing it to be the month of Srawun (August), they commence the month of Bhadown (September) from the day on which the sun enters the new sign of the zodiac. This makes a difference of ten days, and some hours, in every solar year. Thus in every third year they have an extra month, which they include in that division they call the rainy season; and in that year they have five lunar months for the wet season. On the occasion of the extra month again recurring they include it in the cold season, and on the third occasion, in the hot season. The seasons, according to the Indian phraseology, are as follow: —

answering to Cancer, Leo, Virgo, and Libra. They reckon only twenty-six days, and something over, for Libra; and this difference they carry to the account of the lunar year, to make it corre-pond with the solar calculations.

which lasts from the end of Libra to the beginning of Aquarius, including part of both.

The rains are usually the heaviest in the two months of Srawun and Bhadown (August and September); whereas the cold is in the extreme in the months of Poos and Mag'h (January and February); and the hottest months are Cheitr and Ashar (April and July). According to this account the Hindoos subdivide the year into six portions, each of which has its particular name; for instance,

Srawun and Bhadown (August and September)
are called Burk Root, or Veersha;
Asween and Kartik (October and November)
Surrid Root;
Margsirsh and Poos (December and January)
Heemunt Root;
Mag'h and P'halgoon (February and March)
Seeshir Root;
Cheitr and Veishak (April and May) Busunt
Root;
Jeisht and Ashar (June and July) Greeshm Root.

The Hindoos divide the day and night into twelve hours each; and they subdivide their twelve hours into minutes in the same way as in other countries. They also separate the day and night into eight pe'hrs, or watches. A pe'hr is the same as the pas of the Persians, from which is derived the word pasban, a watchman. The Hindoos also subdivide their twelve hours into thirty gurries; so that there are seven gurries and a half in each pe'hr, or watch. The variations in the length of the day and the night are minutely observed, and recorded by their astronomers and learned men.

Let it not remain concealed from those persons who peruse history in general, that the central portion of Hind has been subjected to the arms of the kings of Islam, (may God perpetuate their good works!) while the territories of the confines are still in possession of several great Hindoo princes; who having submitted to pay tribute are permitted to retain their countries, which they thus preserve from foreign invasion. Of these princes, there are five principal rajas on the north, and five others on the south, each of whom has numerous tributary rajas dependent on him. There are several great rajas, too, in the Deccan who possess extensive regions, and who have also tributary chiefs subordinate to them. Of the five former great rajas are

The Raja of Kooch,
The Raja of Jummoo,
The Raja of Nagrakote,
The Raja of Kumaoon, and
The Raja of Bhimbur.

The rajas of Kooch are lineally descended, from father to son, from Shunkul, who was once a great ruler of that territory. In modern times there have been four dynasties of kings; and he who is now on the throne is of the race of hill-bramins, which are not held in much estimation by the inhabitants of Hindoostan. The territory of Kooch is bounded on one side by Chittagong, on another by China, and on another by Bengal. The Raja of Jummoo in ancient times was held to be very powerful, because he possessed seventy forts. He is of the tribe of Moolbas, or Boolbas: this tribe is connected with the Nowair Purwary. Raja Rig is the first person of this hill-race who is mentioned as famous in history. In the time of Gooshtasp of Persia, Kedaraj, the nephew of Mahraj, King of Kunowj, constructed the fort of Jummoo, and made it over, with the neighbouring country, to Raja Rig. He, accompanied by four hundred blood relations, raised an army, and fixing himself in that mountainous region, established a kingdom for his descendants. The Raja who is now on the throne is the sixty-first lineal descendant of Raja Rig; but he does not possess all the power which his ancestors once did.

The Raja of Nagrakote is of a family which traces its pedigree through a long ancestry of one thousand three hundred years; anterior to which, the race of Beis, or Byce, held sovereign sway in that territory for nearly one thousand years, when the present family ascended the throne; but I have been unable to trace its origin. The Raja of Nagra-kote obtains consideration from the Hindoos for two reasons: first, because he holds in his possession so strong a fortress as that of Nagrakote; secondly, because the celebrated temple dedicated to Doorga is within his dominions. From this source he derives a considerable revenue, on account of the pious Hindoos who come annually to make offerings there.

The Raja of Kumaoon also possesses an extensive dominion, and a considerable quantity of gold is procured by washing the earth mounds in his country, which also contains copper mines. His territory stretches to the north as far as Thibet, and on the south reaches to Sumbhul, which is included in India. He retains in pay an army of eighty thousand men, both cavalry and infantry, and commands great respect from the emperors of Dehly. His treasures, too, are vast. It is a rule among the kings of Kumaoon not to encroach on the hoards of their ancestors; for it is a saying among them, that whoever applies his father's treasures to his own use will become mean and beggarly in spirit; so that at the present day fifty-six distinct treasures exist, which have been left by the rajas of Kumaoon, each of which has the owner's seal on it. The sources of the Jumna and Ganges are both to be found within the Ku-maoon territory.

The Raja of Bhimbur is also a prince of great power, and has an extensive dominion. These five rajas have numerous petty princes dependent on them, whose countries are situated in their vicinity. Such are the great Hindoo princes of the Sewalik mountains, which lie on the north of Hindoostan. These mountains extend from Swad and Bijour in a continuous chain as far as Bengal; and they embrace Hindoostan on the north, so that both ends are lost in flat and sandy deserts on the south. From the boundaries of Kech and Mikram, as far as the mountains, is a desert tract. In these regions are the territories of the Raja of Kutch, the Raja of Amurkote, the Raja of Bhi-kaneer, the Raja of Jeselmere, and the Jam Raja. The Raja of Kutch, whose territory lies proximate to Sind, is dependent on the King of Guzerat. Water is so scarce in this country that some of the wells are two hundred yards deep, and the element is drawn up by camels. In consequence of this deficiency, agriculture is very limited, and provisions are scarce.

The Raja of Amurkote is one of the rajas of Sind. Like Kutch, it is deficient in water and cultivation. The Emperor Akbur was born at Amurkote.

The Raja of Bhikaneer claims the privilege of receiving daughters from the several other rajas of India. He is of the race of Bhurteea.

The Raja of Jeselmere is also a great prince: his country lies between Guzerat and Sind. This tract abounds in fearful deserts and forests, and is very deficient in water. Its resources are chiefly derived from breeding horses and camels; for, like the countries of Kutch and Sind, it suffers for want of water, and the cultivation, therefore, is very limited.

The country of the Jam Raja is situated near to Guzerat. When the King of Guzerat is powerful, the Jam Raja pays tribute, otherwise he refuses to do so. His country is ill supplied with water, and his subjects are not only in want of clothing, but frequently suffer from the absence of food. They subsist, for the most part, on the milk of camels and buffaloes. Fine horses are procured in abundance in that country, and the Arabians ^551a which are brought to India are imported through Kutch, and pay a considerable revenue to the government.

Within the territories of these five rajas little other grain but bajry and jowar is cultivated. The revenue is for the most part derived from horses and camels.

Among the great rajas of the Deccan is the Raja of the Carnatic. Of this line the most illustrious was Beejy Sing, who, nine hundred years ago, founded the city of Beejanuggur, so called after him; and his descendants considered it incumbent on them to add to its extent and beauty, so that it became seven coss ^552a in circumference. The first person who displayed the banners of revolt in India, and pretended to establish his independence from the kings of Kunowj, was the ancestor of the rajas of the Carnatic, as has been before related†; ^552b and in the reign of Mahraj he expelled his lieutenant, Shew Ray, from the Deccan. His descendants, however, from father to son, succeeded to the kingdom, when at length Ramraj, in the year 972 (A. D. 1564), opposed the kings of the Deccan, and was slain; after which period no such raja has sat on the throne.

As ample details regarding the other rajas of the Deccan are to be found by referring to the histories of that part of India which have been before given in this work, I have not thought proper to lengthen it out by again dwelling on those subjects.