Tārīḫ-i Firištah - The History of the Rise of Mohammedan Power in India, Volume 4

Jam Afra reigns for three years, and is succeeded by his brother Choban, who reigns fourteen years, and is succeeded by his nephew Jam Bany — attempts to throw off his allegiance from Dehly, but is attacked by Feroze Toghluk, and taken prisoner — he is carried to Dehly, but is subsequently restored to his government — is succeeded by Jam Timmajy. — The Soomunas embrace Mahomedism. — Jam Sulah-ood-Deen ascends the throne — is succeeded by his son, Jam Nizam-ood-Deen, who is succeeded by Jam Ally Sheer — he is succeeded by his son Giran, in whom the lineal descent becomes extinct. — The people elect Jam Futteh Khan as king — he is succeeded by his brother Jam Toghluk. — The chiefs raise Jam Sikundur, the son of Futteh Khan, to the throne. — Jam Sungur is elected by the people. — Jam Nunda is elected. — Sind invaded by the troops of Shah Beg Arghoon, ruler of Kandahar. — The fort of Sewly taken. — Bhukkur taken. — Sind overrun by the Arghoons, who quit the country. — Death of Jam Nunda — is succeeded by Jam Feroze. — Contests between Jam Sulah-ood-Deen and Jam Feroze. — Sulah-ood-Deen is supported by an army from Guzerat. — Feroze calls in the aid of the Ar-ghoons. — Sulah-ood-Deen is killed. — The Guzeratties are expelled, and the Arghoons seize the country.

THE zemindars of Sind were originally of two tribes or families, the one denominated Soomuna and the other Soomura, and the chief of the former was distinguished by the appellation of Jam. In the latter end of the reign of Mahomed Toghluk of Dehly, Sind owned allegiance to that monarch; nevertheless, occasionally taking advantage of local circumstances, the Sindies contrived, for a considerable period, to shake off their allegiance. The first of the family of which we have any account was

JAM CHOBAN was nominated by his predecessor to succeed him in the government of Sind. We are

A. H. 754.
A. D. 1353.

told he was famed for his forbearance and moderation, and reigned peaceably for a period of fourteen years.

ON the death of Jam Choban, his nephew Jam Bany, the son of Jam Afra, having set up his claims to the government, established them, and succeeded his uncle Jam Choban. During his reign he publicly asserted his independence from the throne of Dehly, and refused to pay the

A. H. 762.
A. D. 1360.

accustomed tribute. Owing to this, in the year 762, Feroze Toghluk of Dehly marched with an army to Sind. Jam Bany, incapable of making resistance, fled, but having previously secured a large quantity of provisions and forage for his cattle, he laid waste by fire for many miles the surrounding country. By this stratagem his enemies were reduced to the utmost distress for forage, and compelled to fall back on the cultivated plains of Guzerat, where Feroze remained during the rainy season. After which the grass having grown, and being too green to be burned, Feroze was enabled to prosecute his march into Sind. Jam Bany was now reduced to submit to the Dehly arms, and threw himself on the mercy of Feroze Toghluk, who appointed his own governor over the provinces of Sind and Tutta, and returned to Dehly accompanied by Jam Bany, and other principal Sind chieftains in his train. Being some time after perfectly satisfied of their fidelity, he reinstated Jam Bany in his government, which he resumed with all his former

A. H. 769.
A. D. 1367.

dignities. Shortly after this he died, having reigned for a period of fifteen years.

ON the death of Jam Bany he was succeeded

A. H. 782.
A. D. 1380.

by his brother Timmajy, who after having passed a peaceable reign of thirteen years died. It appears from the foregoing few names that the Sind princes were hitherto bramins.^424a

JAM ALLY SHEER succeeded his father, Nizam-ood-Deen, and from the first period of his reign to its close, we are told that his government assumed a shape more respectable than any of his predecessors; but his reign, like that of the world, was of comparatively short duration, and he was snatched

A. H. 812.
A. D. 1409.

from his affectionate subjects after the short space of six years, when he died, universally and deservedly lamented.

ALLY SHEER was succeeded by Jam Giran, the son of Jam Timmajy; but fate being jealous of his good fortune deprived him of his dignities on the second day of his accession.

UPON the death of Jam Giran, a consultation of the chiefs of the Sind tribes was held; and we find

A. H. 827.
A. D. 1423.

they elected Futteh Khan Soomuna, the son of Iskundur Khan, to the government. He ruled over that country for a period of fifteen years, and died.

FUTTEH KHAN was succeeded by his younger brother, Toghluk, who was universally beloved. During his reign, the empire of Dehly being reduced to a state of anarchy, and the King obliged to fly from his throne, Jam Toghluk looked towards Guzerat, that had lately declared its independence, for support. To obtain this end, he opened a friendly intercourse with that kingdom, which continued during the period of the Soomuna dynasty.

A. H. 854.
A. D. 1450.

Jam Toghluk died, after a reign of twenty-seven years, and was succeeded by his kinsman, Jam Moobarik, who was deposed, after a short reign of three days.

THE chiefs of the tribes having deposed Moo-barik on the third day after his accession, placed in his stead Sikundur, the son of Jam Futteh Khan, and nephew to the late Jam Toghluk; but his

A. H. 856.
A. D. 1452.

reign was also of short duration, for he died in the space of eighteen months after his elevation.

SIKUNDUR was succeeded by Sunjur, a descendant of the former kings of Sind, who was elected from among the people as their ruler, not only on account of his descent, but from his personal virtues. He reigned with justice for

A. H. 864.
A. D. 1460.

a period of eight years, and was succeeded by Jam Nizam-ood-Deen, commonly called

NIZAM-OOD-DEEN NUNDA was a prince who promoted the prosperity of his country. He was contemporary with Hussun Lunga, King

A. H. 890.
A. D. 1485.

of Mooltan. We find that in the year 890 Shah Beg Arghoon made a descent from Kandahar, and besieged the fort of Sewly, then commanded by Bahadur Khan Sindy, which he took by assault; and having left his younger brother, Mahomed, in charge, he retreated to Kan-dahar. Jam Nunda deputed one Moobarik Khan to retake Sewly. Upon his approach he was opposed by Mahomed Beg Arghoon; and several engagements took place, in one of which the latter was killed, and the fort of Sewly again reverted to the government of Sind. The moment the King of Kan-dahar heard this, he appointed Mirza Eesy Tur-khan to occupy the post of his brother; and Jam Nunda collected an army, and sent it, under the command of Moobarik Khan, to oppose him. A severe engagement occurred on the frontier, in which the Sindies were defeated with great loss, and Moobarik Khan, who was himself wounded, fled to the fortress of Bhukkur. Shah Beg Ar-ghoon, hearing of the success of his general, collected a still larger force, and marched in person to Bhukkur, where he was opposed by Kazy Kavun, who was at last obliged to submit, and Fazil Beg Gokultash was left in the government of that province. Shah Beg then proceeded to Sehwan, which he also reduced; and having placed Khwaja Baky Beg in charge, and deeming these conquests suf-cient for his first campaign, he returned to Kan-dahar.

Jam Nunda expended large sums for the purpose of collecting a force in order to recover the fortress of Sewly, but was unsuccessful in every attempt. Indeed the Sindies, who had once been defeated by Eesy Turkhan, could never be brought to face the Toorkmans again. Such was the dread which prevailed at that time among the Sindies, that one day a Toorkman having dismounted for the purpose of fastening the girth of his saddle, was surrounded by a party of forty Sindies. The astonished Toorkman mounted his horse in dismay, in order to effect his escape; but the Sindies imagining it was to attack them, the whole troop dispersed over the face of the country, and the Toorkman rode up quietly to his comrades, who were at a considerable distance. Historians relate that this circumstance, connected with others equally disgraceful to the

A. H. 894.
A. D. 1492.

credit of his subjects, broke the heart of Jam Nunda, who died after a reign of thirty-two years.

ON the death of Jam Nunda, he was succeeded by his son Feroze, who appointed his relation, Duria Khan, to the office of prime minister; shortly after which, Jam Sulah-ood-Deen, a distant relative, set up his pretensions to the government, when, after several engagements with Jam Feroze, he fled to Guzerat. Moozuffur Shah of Guzerat espoused a first cousin of the Sind pretender, and was induced to send troops to assist him in deposing Jam Feroze. On reaching the confines of Sind, Sulah-ood-Deen gained Duria Khan over to his interest, and took many of the towns on the confines. Jam Feroze, however, eventually succeeded in repelling these attacks; and although Duria Khan, in the first instance, joined Sulah-ood-Deen, he subsequently returned to his allegiance to Feroze, and compelled the pretender to retreat to Guzerat, covered with shame and confusion.

Moozuffur Shah of Guzerat, notwithstanding his

late disappointment, again assisted Sulah-ood-Deen with a force, in the year 926, with which he marched, and succeeded in expelling Jam Feroze, and himself occupied Sind. Reduced to the utmost extremity, Jam Feroze applied to Shah Beg Arghoon for assistance, who deputed one Soombul Khan with a respectable force to expel the usurper, and re-establish Jam Feroze in his father's government. The two armies met near Sehwan, where a bloody engagement took place, in which, though Sulah-ood-Deen distinguished himself by his valour, he fell, and the government of Sind reverted to Jam Feroze. Shah Beg Arghoon having long contemplated the entire subjugation of Sind, availed himself of the present moment to accomplish it; and considering that no one would be more interested in wresting it out of the hands of Sulah-ood-Deen than Feroze, he permitted the troops to act in his name, but after his success he determined to seize the country for himself. This period had now arrived; and,

A. H. 927.
A. D. 1520.

accordingly, in the following year, 927, Shah Beg marched to conquer Sind, and occupied the whole country, even to the possession of Tutta itself.

On the re-assumption of the government by Jam Feroze, Duria Khan was restored to the office of prime minister, and subsequently fell in action against the troops of the King of Kandahar, while his master, who attempted for some time to collect a force to recover his throne, was eventually compelled to fly his country and seek safety in Guzerat; but upon his arrival, finding that Moozuffur Shah had died, and had been succeeded by Bahadur Shah, he returned to Sind; when seeing no chance of recovering his government, he resolved to enter into the service of Bahadur Shah of Guzerat. From this period may be dated the downfal of the Soomuna dynasty, and the establishment of that of Arghoon.

THE founder of this dynasty was the son of Mirza Zoolnoon Beg Arghoon, the commander-in-chief and head of the nobles at the court of Sooltan Hoossein Mirza, King of Khorassan, ^432a his family having always been considered, since the invasion of Chungiz Khan, as the first in the empire. Sooltan Hoossein Mirza, in the year 884, (A. D. 1479,) nominated Zoolnoon Beg Arghoon to the government of Kandahar, and the provinces of Zemeen-Dawur, Samira, Lowluk, and Ghoor, notwithstanding one of the princes of the blood-royal was styled Prince of Kandahar, and sometimes, for form's sake, went to visit his principality. Zoolnoon Beg, at length taking advantage of circumstances, declared himself independent. On this occasion he nominated his son Shooja Beg, commonly called Shah Beg, to the government of Kandahar. The provinces of Samira and Lowluk were given in charge to Abdool Ally Turkhan, and the government of Ghoor to Ameer Fukhr-ood-Deen, while he himself spent the remainder of his days in the government of Zemeen-Dawur. About the period when he established his independence, a lucky incident occurred which secured it for him. The Prince Budee-ool-Zuman Mirza having quarrelled with the King, retired in disgust to his old friend, Mirza Zoolnoon Beg, who not only received him with hospitality, but even gave him his daughter in marriage; and on the reconciliation of the father and son, Zool-noon was not only forgiven, but the interest obtained through the marriage of his daughter procured for him confirmation in his government. Mirza Zoolnoon Beg was subsequently killed in action; and after his death the province of Kan-dahar devolved on his son Shah Beg, who after having first reduced the towns of Sewly and Bhukkur, as before mentioned, resolved to extend his conquests over Sind. At this period, Babur Padshah having invaded the province of Kandahar, Shah Beg, in spite of his efforts, was unable to resist him, he therefore availed himself of the opportunity that occurred, in the differences between Jam Feroze and Sulah-ood-Deen, to carry his favourite project into effect; and having subdued Sind, settled himself as king in that country. His

A. H. 930.
A. D. 1523.

reign was, however, but of short duration, for he died two years after the conquest, in the year 930.

Shah Beg was exceedingly well read, and is mentioned as the patron of literature by many authors in their works. His courage was so fierce as to be nearly allied to rashness: he always led his own troops into battle. He has been often heard to say, after an action, that he was as much astonished at himself, as others who related his conduct, and constantly confessed that he lost all self-control after the first charge.^434a

Shah Hoossein ascends his father's throne — completes the subjugation of Sind — takes Mooltan, which is retaken by the inhabitants. — Hoomayoon Padshah takes refuge in Sind, where he continues for two years and a half. — Conduct of Shah Hoossein — promises his daughter in marriage to Yadgar Nasir Mirza, and proclaims him King. — Hoomayoon quits Sind. — Shah Hoossein expels Yadgar Mirza. — Kamran Mirza comes to Sind — receives in marriage the daughter of Shah Hoossein. — Death of Shah Hoossein Arghoon.

AFTER the death of Shah Beg, he was succeeded by his eldest son Hoossein, who, following in the path of his father, reduced those towns in Sind which had not yet been subdued by his predecessor. He also rebuilt the fort of Bhukkur, and strengthened that of Sehwan.

At the period that Babur Padshah directed his

A. H. 931.
A. D. 1524.

generals to reduce Mooltan, in the year 931, Mahmood Lunga deputed some officers to wait on him, entreating him to forego the conquest of his country; to which Babur consented, on his acknowledging fealty, and paying tribute. But Mahmood dying suddenly, was succeeded by his son Hoossein Lunga. Shah Hoos-sein Arghoon of Sind scarcely gave him time to ascend his father's throne, when he invested his capital; and after a close siege of fifteen months took it by storm, putting to death some of the inhabitants. Many, however, were taken prisoners, among whom was Hoossein Lunga himself. Having placed the fort of Mooltan in the hands of Khwaja Shums-ood-Deen, he returned to Tutta. After quitting Mooltan, an insurrection of the inhabitants occurred in favour of one Shumsheer Khan, a noble of the Lunga government, who expelled Shums-ood-Deen, and Shah Hoossein did not find it convenient at that time to take revenge for the revolt.

A. H. 947.
A. D. 1540. In the year 947, when Hoomayoon Padshah was driven from India by Sheer Shah, and endeavoured to collect troops from all quarters, he marched from Lahore into Sind, and halted near the city of Bhukkur. Thence he sent an order to Shah Hoossein Arghoon to assist him. Shah Hoossein, doubtful of the sincerity of Hoo-mayoon, delayed his visit for six months, and then returned an answer sufficiently indicative of his determination not to visit him at all. Hoomayoon, incensed at this neglect, invested his uncle, Yadgar Nasir Mirza, with the government of Bhukkur, and proceeded himself to Tutta. Shah Hoossein promised his daughter in marriage to Yadgar Nasir Mirza, and also offered to assist in rendering him king of Sind; in proof of which, he caused the public prayers to be read in the name of Yadgar Mirza. At the same time, Shah Hoossein, having embarked in a boat, landed near the royal army, and succeeded in cutting off Hoomayoon's supplies, owing to the influence he possessed among the inhabitants. Hoomayoon, thus situated, was compelled to sue for peace, and deputed as his ambassador Beiram Khan Bharloo, a Toorkman chief. Affairs being amicably adjusted, Hoomayoon procured from Shah Hoossein camels, boats, and other necessary equipments for his journey. After having remained two years and a half in those countries, he marched towards Kandahar. Shah Hoossein, having gained his point, by separating the interests of Hoomayoon and Yadgar Nasir Mirza, did not hesitate now to drive the latter out of Bhukkur, and compelled him to retreat to Kabul.

A. H. 952.
A. D. 1545. In the year 952, Kamran Mirza, the son of Babur Padshah, having separated from Hoomayoon, joined Shah Hoossein, by whom he was treated with every attention. He even gave him his daughter in marriage; and presenting him with a large casket of jewels Kamran proceeded to Kabul, in order to establish his claims

A. H. 966.
A. D. 1554.

in that province. Shah Hoossein, after having reigned for a period of thirty-two years, died A. H. 962.

ON the death of Shah Hoossein, the government of Sind was divided between two rivals, Mahmood the governor of Bhukkur, and Mirza Eesy Turkhan governor of Tutta; who both assumed the title of king, and between whom frequent dissensions arose, and battles were fought.

Mahmood of Bhukkur was either mad, or such a monster of iniquity and cruelty as we seldom read of; such, at least, is the character given of him by historians. Akbur Padshah, on coming to Lahore, deputed Mohib Ally Khan to conquer Sind, and that officer reduced the whole province of Bhukkur, exclusive of the fort; till at last Mahmood being reduced to extremities, wrote a petition to Akbur Padshah, saying, that he was ready to give up his only remaining fortress to any other officer, but would not surrender it to Mohib Ally Khan. Akbur Padshah in consequence deputed Geesoo Khan to receive it; but Mahmood died before his arrival,

A. H. 982.
A. D. 1572.

in the year 982, after a reign of twenty years. Bhukkur thus fell without farther opposition, by which Akbur Padshah became possessed of Upper Sind, and put an end to the hopes of the race of Mahmood.

MIRZA EESY TURKHAN also died, after a reign of

A. H. 975.
A. D. 1470.

thirteen years, A. H. 975; but as we have no account of the transition of the dynasty of Arghoon to that of Turkhan we cannot form any probable conjectures on that head. It appears to me, from all I have read, and from what I can learn on the subject, that Mirza Eesy Turkhan was a Toorkman, and commander-in-chief of Shah Beg's army.

Contests between Mirza Mahomed Baky and Khan Baba, the sons of Mirza Eesy Turkhan. — Mirza Mahomed Baky is successful.

AFTER the death of Mirza Eesy Turkhan, his two sons, Mirza Mahomed Baky and Khan Baba, both set up as rivals for the government; but the elder brother, Mirza Mahomed Baky, having collected the more numerous force, succeeded in establishing himself; and during his rule he always maintained a friendly intercourse with Akbur Padshah of Dehly, frequently sending presents, and acknowledging fealty to that monarch; but during the life of Mahmood of Bhukkur, like his predecessor he was sometimes engaged in war,

A. H. 993.
A.D. 1584.

and sometimes at peace. He died, after a reign of eighteen years, in the year 993.

Mirza Jany Beg, the grandson of Mirza Mahomed Baky, succeeds him — is attacked by Mirza Khan, the son of Beiram Khan Toorkman — concludes peace — gives his daughter in marriage to Mirza Eerich, the son of Mirza Khan. — Mirza Jany Beg attends the Mogul army to Dehly — is enrolled among the nobles. — Sind attached to Dehly.

UPON the death of Mirza Mahomed Baky, he was succeeded by his grandson, Mirza Jany Beg. Akbur Padshah, who before the death of Mirza Mahomed Baky had gone to Lahore and remained there for some years, expected a personal visit from the ruler of Tutta; but being disappointed, and having already taken Bhukkur, he proceeded to take measures for the subjugation of Tutta, the remaining province of Sind. In the year 999,

A. H. 999.
A. D. 1590.

therefore, he presented the government of Mooltan and Bhukkur to his commander-in-chief, Mirza Khan, the son of Beiram Khan, directing him to proceed and occupy it in his name.

This officer, in the first instance, attacked the fort of Sehwan; on which occasion Mirza Jany Beg collecting a large force, and being aided by the zemindars, embarked in boats and vessels, and went up the river towards Sehwan. Mirza Khan raising the siege, proceeded to attack Jany Beg's forces. On reaching Nuseerpoor, within eight coss of the Sindian army, he found that Mirza Jany Beg had with him upwards of one hundred large vessels, exclusive of two hundred boats filled with archers, musketeers, and artillery, though he had only twenty-five vessels. With these he boldly bore down to engage the Sindy fleet, himself taking up a commanding position on the bank of the river Indus, whence he not only surveyed the events of the action, but erected a battery on shore to act against the enemy. A shot having struck one of the Sindy boats, it caused confusion, which enabled the Mogul fleet to capture seven of the Sindy vessels, in which they put to death two hundred

Mohurrum 26.
A. H. 1000.
November 3.
A. D. 1591.

men. The action occurred on the 26th of Mohurrum, A.H. 1000, and lasted for a whole day and night, when the Sindies were eventually defeated. After this, Mirza Jany Beg taking up a position flanked on each side by a marsh on the bank of the river, strengthened it by throwing up a breast-work all round. Mirza Khan now proceeded to invest this entrenched camp; and daily skirmishes took place between the two armies, in which neither gained any apparent advantage, though many lives were lost. The Sindians, however, having cut off the supplies from Mirza Khan's camp, reduced it to a state of absolute famine, and compelled him to desist from the attack. Mirza Khan now marched to the south, and encamped at Ahwan (near the city of Tutta), detaching a force to renew the siege of Sehwan. Mirza Jany Beg, conceiving himself able to cope with that detachment, marched to intercept it. Mirza Khan, hearing of this movement, detached Dowlut Khan with reinforcements to join the Sehwan division; and Jany Beg gave battle, but was defeated, and taking to his boats fled to Arnool, where he prepared for another attack. The victorious army pursuing him, invested Arnool, where they were shortly afterwards joined by Mirza Khan in person. The besieged held out obstinately, though reduced to eat their horses and camels. But eventually Mirza Jany Beg offered to acknowledge fealty to the King of Dehly, to surrender the place, and to proceed to the presence in three months from the date of the peace, while it was agreed by Mirza Khan, on the other hand, to refrain from all hostile measures till orders could be received from court. Mirza Khan shortly after celebrated the nuptials of his son Mirza Eerich with the daughter of Mirza Jany Beg. After the rainy season of the

A. H. 1001.
A. D. 1592.

year 1001, having occupied the forts of Bhukkur, Sehwan, and Tutta, Mirza Khan accompanied Mirza Jany Beg to the presence of Akbur Padshah, who created him a noble of the realm, and his dignities were enrolled in the public records, while Mirza Khan received great honours, also, from his sovereign; and from that date the whole kingdom of Sind reverted to the sovereignty of the empire of Dehly, as it continues at this day.

To face page 444. Vol. IV.]

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Some account of the situation, the climate, and the productions of Kashmeer, from the histories of Mirza Heidur Doghlat and from the Zufur Nama.

THE following brief account of Kashmeer is extracted from an interesting and authentic work on that country, written by Mirza Heidur Doghlat, who is himself mentioned in the course of this history:—

Kashmeer lies to the N. E. of the district of Pugly, in the Punjab: it is almost surrounded by mountains; and the valley called Kashmeer is one hundred coss in length, and from ten to twenty in breadth. The soil is in general rich, and produces fine crops both of grain and saffron, the latter of which is particularly good; but the meadows on the banks of rivers being in general too moist for the purposes of cultivation, they are allowed to lie waste, and are covered with fine grass, interspersed with shamrocks, violets, and iris. The climate of Kashmeer, different from that of Hindoostan, is divided into four seasons as in northern countries. In summer the artificial aid of fans is not requisite, as a cool refreshing breeze constantly blows over the valley from the moun-

tains; while the piercing cold of winter is tempered by its proximity to those hills covered with snow, which shield this favoured spot from the bleak blasts that prevail in the neighbouring steppes of Thibet and Tartary. Fires are commonly used in houses in winter, and are often absolutely necessary.

The houses in Kashmeer are high, most of them having five stories: they are commonly built of ebony. The streets are paved with cut stone. They have no bazars as in India; and there appear to be no open shops, except those of money-changers and linen-drapers. The butchers, cooks, bakers, and grocers, used not to expose their goods as in other countries; and even now the artisans take in work and execute it in their own houses. Since the invasion of the Choghtay Tartars (Moguls), the people expose their articles for sale. Kashmeer has always been famed for its fruit: it abounds with mulberries, cherries, and other fruits of the north, all of which are of excellent quality. The former, both large and small, are in great plenty, but seldom eaten by the natives; as the trees are cultivated for the sole purpose of feeding the silk-worm, the produce of which is in great demand for exportation. Among the curiosities of Kashmeer are the Hindoo temples, the walls of which are composed of blocks of hewn stone laid so even upon each other, that they look, at a short distance, as if entirely one solid slab; they are neither cemented by mortar nor connected with leaden bars: many of the stones are from forty to sixty feet in length, and from three to fifteen feet in thickness and in width. Most of these edifices are surrounded by square walls from five to six hundred feet in length, and in many parts nearly one hundred feet in height. The temples are situated within these squares, and generally erected upon a stone terrace supported by massive solid columns, each of a single stone: the apartments within are small, being in general only about twelve feet square, and on the walls are sculptures of human figures, some representing mirth, others grief. In the middle of one of the temples is a throne cut out from the solid rock, on which is a minaret with a dome. ^446a The temples in Kashmeer are, on the whole, so magnificent, that I find myself unequal to give an adequate idea of them; and I imagine there are no such buildings of the kind in the known world. Near to Kashmeer is a district called Tirma†, ^446b wherein, at the foot of a hill, are some hot springs; which, though dry all the year round besides, gush out from the rock boiling hot when the sun enters the sign Taurus; and during that period two or three mills are kept in motion by the rapidity of the stream; but after a certain time this phenomenon ceases, and the spring dries up.‡ ^446c The mouth of the cavity from whence it takes its rise has been frequently built up with hewn stones cemented with lead; but the force of the water has in the ensuing year invariably expelled them. There is a remarkable willow in the district of Nakam, which has grown to such a height that it would be difficult to shoot an arrow over it; notwithstanding which, if you shake one of its branches, the whole of the tree is put in motion. Among other curiosities in Kashmeer, is the reservoir of hot water at Dewsur. This piece of water is about sixty feet in length, around which are five shady trees overhanging it. The natives consider the spot sacred, and say that when one wishes to know if any undertaking will prosper, he must take an earthen vessel, fill it with rice, and having secured the mouth so that water may be excluded, throw it into the holy font: if on coming up the rice is boiled, it is deemed a fortunate omen, but unpropitious if otherwise. The vessel has been known not to appear for five years, but never longer; though it sometimes appears in five days, five weeks, or five months; but it usually gives the decision on the same day on which the person consulting the oracle throws in the vessel.

In the town of Alwur is the palace of Zein-ool-Abid-Deen, one of the kings of Kashmeer. This building is elevated on a terrace thirty feet high, and six hundred feet long. The edifice was originally built of the lapis lazuli, and is situated in a garden which has perhaps never been surpassed for beauty. This monarch also built a handsome palace in his capital of Serinuggur, twelve stories high; in some of which stories are fifty different apartments. The whole is of wood, and considered more beautiful than the Husht-Behisht at Tabreez (Tauris), or the Bagh-i-Ragh, the Bagh-i-Sufeed, or the Bagh-i-Shehry of Hirat, the Ray-Afzay, the Dilgoosha, or the Tuvu-loody of Samarkand; all of which are reckoned magnificent of their kind. The author of the Zufur Nama gives the following account of this province: — Kashmeer being seldom visited by travellers is, consequently, but little known. It is, however, a beautiful valley situated in 33° 54' north latitude. It is bounded on the south by Hindoostan, on the east by Little Thibet, on the north by Kash-ghar, and on the west and south-west by the country of the Afghans. The plain in which it is situated is, from the best of my information, in length, from east to west, one hundred coss; and in breadth, from north to south, twenty-five coss. It is entirely surrounded by mountains, and is said to contain one thousand villages. In consequence of the coldness of the climate at one season of the year, none of the tropical fruits, such as dates, limes, or oranges, will flourish, but they are imported from the warmer countries contiguous. The town of Serinuggur, the capital of Kashmeer, like Bag-dad, is situated on a river which flows through it, and is larger than the Tigris. This river takes its rise in the Kashmeer hills, at a spot called the spring of Deebur. Three bridges of boats, as at Bagdad, are thrown across, by which people pass. The river changes its name when it leaves Kashmeer, and in some places is called the Dundana, in others the Jum-na, till passing through the Punjab it falls into the Chunab; which rolling under the walls of Mooltan joins the Indus, and eventually reaches the sea of Ooman (the Indian ocean), near Tutta in Sind. This fortunate valley, situated in the midst of mountains, is by nature almost impregnable to an invading army. There are three roads which lead out of it. The first, towards Khorassan, is exceedingly difficult, and almost impassable for cattle; but where these obstacles present themselves there are porters, ^449a whose business it is to transport goods and merchandise on their backs to a spot where cattle may be laden and procured. The road to India is equally bad, but the best and most practicable is that towards Thibet. On this road, however, is a plain, on which no other vegetable grows but a poisonous grass that destroys all the cattle which taste of it, and, therefore, no horsemen venture to travel that route. The inhabitants of Kashmeer, at the period of the Mahomedan invasion, were worshippers of the sun, adoring it as the emanation of an invisible Deity. In the reign of Futteh Shah, King of Kash-meer, one Shums-ood-Deen arrived from Irak, and began to disseminate doctrines different from those of any other known sect. His followers assumed the title of Noorbukhsh (Illuminati), but the holy men of the Mahomedan faith succeeded in putting down these sectarians; so that at the present period, the author of this history, Mahomed Kasim Ferishta, having been at some pains to ascertain what religion the inhabitants of Kashmeer now profess, has reason to think that the common people are Mahomedans of the Hunefy persuasion, though the soldiery are commonly Sheeas, as well as some few of the learned men. The King of Little Thibet, contiguous to Kashmeer, is so prejudiced in favour of Sheeas that he allows no man of any other faith to enter his towns. The tribe of Chuk, in Kashmeer, contends, that Meer Shums-ood-Deen of Irak was a Sheea, and that he converted many thousands of people, after which he was crowned in the name of the twelve Imams; and that the Ahowita, the book containing the tenets of the Noorbukhsh religion, is not the composition of that venerable personage, but the production of some ignorant infidel. God only knows on whom we are to depend.

Shah Meer, a Mahomedan of the Hunefy persuasion, becomes minister to Raja Sena Dew of Kashmeer — he usurps the government. — The Raja dies. — The minister marries his widow, and proclaims himself King under the title of Shums-ood-Deen — revises the laws — fixes the assessment on land at seventeen per cent. on the gross produce — resists the attacks of the Tartars of Kashghar — abdicates the throne.

IN the compilation of this history of Kashmeer, I pass over the series of years during which the infidels reigned over that country, the details of which are neither interesting nor authentic. ^451a I shall, therefore, proceed to the period of the first establishment of the Mahomedan faith, which only took place within the last two or three centuries. The original inhabitants of Kashmeer appear to

A. H. 715.
A. D. 1315.

have been followers of Bramha, until the year 715, during the reign of Raja Sena Dew, when a person called Shah Meer, coming to Kashmeer, was admitted into the service of that prince. This man traced his pedigree thus: Shah Meer, the son of Tahir, the son of All, the son of Koorshasp, the son of Neekodur, a descendant from Arjoon an infidel; an account of whom is to be found in the Mahabharut, a work translated by order of Akbur Padshah.^452a

Shah Meer remained some time in the service of the Raja, and so entirely gained his confidence, that upon the death of Sena Dew he was appointed prime minister to his son and successor, Raja Runjun, and also succeeded to the high and responsible situation of governor to the next heir, Chundur Sein. Shortly afterwards, on the death of Raja Runjun, one Raja Anund Dew came from Kashghar†, ^452b and asserted his claim to the throne, as the nearest relation who had attained the age of manhood. Anund Dew also made Shah Meer his minister, and provided handsomely for his two eldest sons, Jumsheed and Ally Sheer. Shah Meer had also two other sons, called Siamook and Hin-dal. The whole of this family not only gained great ascendency over the Raja but also over the minds of the people, till the Raja, becoming jealous of their power, forbade them the court.

This exclusion drove Shah Meer and his sons into rebellion, when having occupied the valley of Kashmeer with their troops, most of the officers of the Raja's government also joined them. This insurrection soon brought the Raja to the

A. H. 727.
A. D. 1326.

grave, who died of a broken heart, in the year 727. His wife, Rany Kowla Devy, who wished to take the reins of government out of the hands of the stranger, wrote to Shah Meer, entreating him to place Chundur Sein, the son of Raja Runjun, on the throne; and Shah Meer not assenting, the Rany collected an army, and marched to oppose him; but she was defeated, and taken prisoner. It appears, however, that she afterwards consented, though reluctantly, to become the wife of Shah Meer, and to embrace the Mahomedan faith; an event which secured to him the country which he had before nearly usurped. The second day after his marriage Shah Meer imprisoned his wife, and proclaimed himself King, under the title of Shums-ood-Deen, causing coin to be struck, and public prayers to be read, in his name, and he established the Hunefy doctrines of the Mahomedan religion throughout Kashmeer. On his accession, he took off the heavy imposts under which the people laboured, protected them from the annual exactions of Diljoo, chief of Kashghar, and fixed the assessment on land at seventeen per cent. on the gross produce. ^453a The inroads and predatory incursions of the surrounding nations, especially those of Diljoo, which during the reign of Sena Dew had laid waste the whole valley, were now checked by the valour of Shums-ood-Deen, who, upon one occasion, marched into Kashghar, and severely retaliated on the Tartars for their former incursions.

During the reign of Shums-ood-Deen, he divided the inhabitants of Kashmeer into two classes, the one called Chuk, the other Makry, and would not entertain any man as a soldier who was not of one or other of these tribes. After having established certain other rules and regulations, he abdicated his throne in favour of his two elder sons, Jum-

A. H. 750.
A. D. 1349.

sheed and Ally Sheer, and in the same year died, after a reign of twenty-three years, A. H. 750.

The elder son of Shums-ood-Deen, ascends the throne — his younger brother, Ally Sheer, puts in his claim to a share in the government. — Civil war, in which Jumsheed, the elder brother, is expelled, and shortly after dies.

ON the death of Shums-ood-Deen, his eldest son, Jumsheed, aided by many of the nobles, ascended the throne; but shortly afterwards the soldiery being attached to his younger brother, Ally Sheer, induced him to proclaim himself at the town of Mednypoor. Jumsheed immediately marched with an army against his rival, and proposed to negotiate a peace rather than draw his sword against his brother; but Ally Sheer, aware he could gain nothing by an amicable settlement, made a night-attack on Jumsheed's army, and completely defeated it. After his retreat Jumsheed again returned to the charge, and took the town of Mednypoor, which was carried by storm, after a desperate resistance by the garrison, which was almost entirely cut to pieces. Ally Sheer, who had previously left Mednypoor, now returned with his army, and compelled Jumsheed to fly to Gujraj; while Siraj-ood-Deen, his prime minister, having invited Ally Sheer to Serinuggur, he was there received as King. Jumsheed made

A. H. 752.
A. D. 1351.

no further efforts to regain his government, but shortly afterwards died, after a reign of fourteen months, A. H. 752.

Ally Sheer is proclaimed King, under the appellation of Alla-ood-Deen. — A severe famine prevails. — He seizes several bramins, who endeavour to quit the kingdom. — A new law enacted, by which a wife who has been false to her husband forfeits all claim on his estate. — The town of Bukhshypoor built. — The King dies.

ON the death of Jumsheed, Ally Sheer was proclaimed King, under the title of Alla-ood-Deen; and he appointed his younger brother, Siamook, to the office of minister. During his reign a severe dearth was experienced in Kashmeer, to which many people of both sexes fell victims. About the same period, some bramins endeavoured to emigrate to Kashghar; and the King, supposing it to be for the purpose of creating a revolt, caused them to be seized and confined for life. A law was enacted during this reign, by which no woman convicted of being false to her husband could inherit his property. Alla-ood-Deen founded

A. H. 765.
A. D. 1363.

the city of Allapoor, near the town of Bukhshypoor, where he died, after a reign of thirteen years, A. H. 765.

Siamook succeeds his brother, under the title of Shahab-ood-Deen — he marches an army into the Punjab, and invades Sind — on his return, he invades Pishawur — is met in the Punjab by the Raja of Nagrakote — returns to Kashmeer — builds the towns of Lutchmynuggur and Shahabpoor — his sons rebel against him, and are expelled the kingdom. — The King relents, and sends for his eldest son, Hussun, from Dehly; but dies before his arrival.

ON the death of his elder brother, Siamook succeeded to the government, with the title of Shahab-ood-Deen. He was the first of the Kash-meer monarchs who appears to have marched for the purpose of making foreign conquests; for shortly after his accession he proceeded with an army through the Punjab, and encamped on the banks of the Indus, where he was opposed by the Jam of Sind, whom he completely defeated. The fame of this event reached even the provinces of Kandahar and Ghizny, whose governors were apprehensive he would next make a descent upon them. Having passed through the city of Ashnuggur, he invaded Pishawur, where he put to death many of the inhabitants who opposed him, and thence marched to the Hindoo Kooh; but finding those mountains inaccessible, he retraced his steps, and encamped on the banks of the Sutlooj. Here he was met by the Raja of Nagrakote, who had returned from a plundering excursion into the Dehly country; and having come back laden with spoils, he placed them at the feet of Shahab-ood-Deen, and acknowledged fealty to that monarch. On his return to Kashmeer he was met by an envoy from the King of Little Thibet, who begged that he would not invade his country. Shortly after which he created his younger brother, Hindal, heir-apparent. His own two sons, Hussun Khan and Ally Khan, being outlawed and expelled the kingdom at the instigation of his second wife, fled to Dehly. And although he recalled the former before his death, Alla-ood-Deen died previously to his arrival at Jummoo.

The towns of Lutchmynuggur and Shahabpoor

A. H. 785.
A. D. 1386.

were built by this prince. He reigned for a period of twenty years, and died A. H. 785.

Hindal succeeds his brother, and assumes the title of Kootb-ood-Deen — engages in war with the Raja of Lohkote. — The Prince Hussun, the eldest son of the late king, joins the Raja; but they are both betrayed into the King's hands. — The Raja of Lohkote suffers death. — The Prince Hussun Khan is imprisoned. — The King's death.

ON the death of Shahab-ood-Deen, his brother Hindal ascending the throne, assumed the title of Kootb-ood-Deen. This prince was remarkable for his extreme attention to public business, which he transacted in person, and generally with justice and moderation. In the latter part of his reign he deputed an officer with a force to reduce the fort of Lohkote, then in a state of revolt. After some severe actions on both sides the Kashmeer officer was killed; and Kootb-ood-Deen shortly after recalled his nephew, Hussun Khan, who, upon the news of his father's death, retired from Jummoo to Dehly. Hussun Khan having reached Kashmeer became so popular as to excite the King's jealousy, who resolved to secure his person; but the Prince being warned of his danger by Ray Rawul, fled to Lohkote, and gave additional confidence to that rebellious garrison. Kootb-ood-Deen now seized the person of Ray Rawul, but he effected his escape, and joined Hussun Khan, with whom he concerted additional plans of revolt; but in their attempt to gain the surrounding zemindars, they were betrayed, seized, and sent to the King, who ordered Ray Rawul to be executed, and his nephew, Hussun Khan, to be imprisoned. In the latter part of his reign, it pleased God to give to the old King two sons, the one called Sugga and

A. H. 799.
A. D. 1396.

the other Heibut Khan. After having reigned for a period of fifteen years, Kootb-ood-Deen died in the year 799.

Subverts the Hindoo religion in Kashmeer, compelling all those bramins who refuse to embrace the Mahomedan faith to quit the country — encourages Mahomedan literature — prohibits the sale of vinous liquors, and exempts all manufactures from export duties.

KOOTB-OOD-DEEN was succeeded by his son Sugga, who assumed the title of Sikundur, and subsequently acquired the surname of Bootshikun, or the Iconoclast. In consequence of his tender years, his mother, the Dowager-queen, whose name was Soorut Rany, exercised the supreme control for a considerable period; during which time she caused her own daughter and son-in-law to be put to death, because she discovered they had entered into an intrigue against her son, the young king. The prime minister, Ray Makry, secretly poisoned the King's younger brother, Heibut Khan, for which, when the King heard of it, he swore he would take revenge at some future period, for the minister had too great power at that time to admit of his attempting it. Ray Makry, perceiving that he was suspected as the cause of Heibut Khan's death, proposed to the King to permit him to lead an army against Little Thibet, in order to evade his master's vengeance, and the latter, not without hopes that he might fall a victim in the expedition, allowed him to march. So far from it, however, Ray Makry succeeded in reducing the kingdom of Little Thibet, and added to his reputation and strength, so that he actually marched against Kashmeer to subvert the government. He was opposed on the Thibet frontier by the King in person, and sustained a total overthrow at the town of Nere. Ray Makry sought temporary safety in flight, but being subsequently seized, he was kept in confinement; in which situation he put an end to his existence by poison, while the King was occupied in making the proper arrangements for settling the newly acquired province of Thibet.

At this period, Ameer Teimoor (Tamerlane), being about to invade India, sent an ambassador with a present of an elephant to Sikundur in Kashmeer, who, on ascertaining the future intentions of that conqueror, sent word that he was ready to join him with his army at any place he might appoint. Ameer Teimoor replied, that he should require his services and assistance in the Punjab, after his return from the conquest of Dehly. On Ameer Teimoor reaching the Punjab, after having crossed the Sewalik mountains, Si-kundur of Kashmeer marched to meet him; but on learning that he expected him to bring three thousand horses and one hundred thousand pieces of gold as an offering, he returned to his capital; and a serious offence might have been taken by Teimoor, had he not early explained himself, by denying his having ever entertained any such expectations. Sikundur now proceeded to pay his respects; but in the mean time Teimoor crossed the Indus, and being in full march to Samarkand, the King of Kashmeer returned to Serinuggur. Sikundur gave great encouragement to literature, and rendered his capital as famous for learning as Irak and Khorassan.

In these days he promoted a bramin, by name Seeva Dew Bhut, to the office of prime minister, who embracing the Mahomedan faith, became such a persecutor of Hindoos that he induced Sikundur to issue orders proscribing the residence of any other than Mahomedans in Kash-meer; and he required that no man should wear the mark on his forehead, or any woman be permitted to burn with her husband's corpse. ^464a Lastly, he insisted on all the golden and silver images being broken and melted down, and the metal coined into money. Many of the bramins, rather than abandon their religion or their country, poisoned themselves; some emigrated from their native homes, while a few escaped the evil of banishment by becoming Mahomedans. After the emigration of the bramins, Sikundur ordered all the temples in Kashmeer to be thrown down; among which was one dedicated to Maha Dew, in the district of Punjhuzara, which they were unable to destroy, in consequence of its foundation being below the surface of the neighbouring water. But the temple dedicated to Jug Dew was levelled with the ground; and on digging into its foundation the earth emitted volumes of fire and smoke, ^465a which the infidels declared to be the emblem of the wrath of the Deity; but Sikundur, who witnessed the phenomenon, did not desist till the building was entirely rased to the ground, and its foundations dug up.

In another place in Kashmeer was a temple built by Raja Bulnat, the destruction of which was attended with a remarkable incident. After it had been levelled, and the people were employed in digging the foundation, a copper-plate was discovered, on which was the following inscription:—

“Raja Bulnat, having built this temple, was “desirous of ascertaining from his astrologers “how long it would last, and was informed by “them, that after eleven hundred years, a king “named Sikundur would destroy it, as well as the “other temples in Kashmeer.” The King was surprised, though vexed, that the Hindoo prophet should have predicted the truth, and declared, if they had placed the plate against the wall, he would have preserved the temple to belie the prophet. Having broken all the images in Kash-meer, he acquired the title of the Iconoclast, “Destroyer of Idols.” Among other good ^466a institutions of Sikundur was the prohibition of vending wine, and the relinquishment of all export duties. At length, in his old age, having contracted a violent fever, he sent for his three sons, Ameer Khan, Shady Khan, and Mahomed Khan, to whom he gave his blessing; and declaring

A. H. 819.
A. D. 1416.

Ameer Khan his successor, with the title of Ally Shah, he died A. H. 819, after a reign of nearly twenty years.

Succeeds his father on the throne — resolves to travel in foreign countries, and places his brothers, Shady and Mahomed, in charge of the government — is dissuaded from his intention, and endeavours to re-assume the throne — is opposed by his brothers, whom he defeats — is subsequently attacked, and overpowered by Shady Khan. — Death of Ally Shah.

IN consequence of the veneration for the memory of Sikundur, his eldest son, Ameer Khan, was acknowledged King of Kashmeer, under the title of Ally, although as yet a minor. In the beginning of his reign, the whole of the affairs of the state devolved upon Seeva Dew Bhut, the prime minister. That statesman, with all the zeal of a convert, persecuted the few bramins who still remained firm to their religion; and by putting all to death who refused to embrace Mahomed-ism, he drove those who still lingered in Kashmeer entirely out of that kingdom. Shortly after the King's accession, the minister, being seized with a spitting of blood, died. Ally immediately appointed his younger brother, Shady Khan, to transact the business of the state in his stead; and in a very short time took the resolution of travelling in foreign countries. He, in consequence, associated his youngest brother, Mahomed Khan, with Shady Khan, and went to visit his father-in-law, the Raja of Jummoo. This prince strongly dissuaded Ally Shah from prosecuting his design, and advised him by all means to re-assume charge of his government. His two brothers, however, flatly refused to acknowledge him. The Raja of Jummoo, therefore, in conjunction with the Raja of Rajoory, collected troops for the purpose of reinstating Ally Shah. Shady Khan was obliged to fly and take refuge at Seealkote, with Jusrut, the brother of Sheikha Gukkur, who had made his escape from Teimoor, and settled in the Punjab. Jusrut, espousing the cause of Shady Khan, attacked Ally Shah and defeated him; on which occasion it is asserted by some, that he fell into the hands of the conqueror, while others affirm, that having fled from the scene of action he was pursued by Shady Khan into Kashmeer, whence he was obliged to fly his country, and Shady Khan was crowned at Seri-

A. H. 826.
A. D. 1422.

nuggur in his stead. Ally reigned for a period of seven years, and his brother ascended the throne in the year 826.

SHADY KHAN ascended the throne under the title of Zein-ool-Abid-Deen, and immediately sent a large force, with Jusrut Gukkur, to conquer the Punjab, and eventually to attack Dehly. Although unable to cope with the King of Dehly, Jusrut completely subdued the Punjab. Zein-ool-Abid-Deen, meanwhile, marched towards Thibet; and having subjected great part of that country to his authority, he associated his brother, Mahomed Khan, in the government, and determined to abolish the odious persecution adopted by Seeva Dew Bhut, the late prime minister. Preliminary to all other measures, he recalled the bramins who had been expelled, and caused a general toleration of all religions to be publicly notified. Temples were again permitted to be built, and each individual worshipped his God agreeably to the faith in which he was educated. The King superintended in person the construction of several canals and aqueducts; and established a code of laws which were engraved on copper-plates, and placed in all the public markets and halls of justice. His lenity was carried to such lengths, that he never put to death any individual of the state for theft or petty crimes; but robbers of all descriptions were fettered, and obliged to gain their livelihood by hard work, in the construction of public edifices. With all these regal virtues, he associated that domestic one so rarely practised, of strict fidelity to his only wife. He encouraged literature and the arts; and the science of music in his days was much improved by the different books written on the subject. ^470a During his reign, the Raja of Thibet sent a pair of birds caught on the lake of Mansurowur. They were excessively beautiful, and were called the royal geese; and possessed the extraordinary faculty of separating particles of milk from water, if they were mixed, after which they used to drink each separately.†^470b

In the beginning of his reign, Zein-ool-Abid-Deen nominated his brother Mahomed Khan to the office of prime minister, and associated him in the government; and after his death, he invested his son, Heidur, with all the dignities of his father. The King also honoured his two foster-brothers, Musaood and Sheeroo, with great confidence and high offices; but having had a dispute, Sheeroo put his elder brother, Musaood, to death, for which the King caused him to be tried and executed; but afterwards distributed a crore of rupees, equal to four hundred seers ^471a of solid gold among the poor, for the salvation of his soul.

Zein-ool-Abid-Deen had three sons, Adhum, Hajy, and Beiram: the eldest he always disliked; and though the second was his favourite, yet he gave to the third a large tract of country, over which he appointed him governor. After arriving at the age of manhood, the three princes becoming jealous of each other evinced symptoms of direct hostility, and the King thought it better to divide them: he therefore placed the eldest son, Ad-hum Khan, at the head of an army to invade Thibet, and sent his second son against Lohkote. The former succeeded in overrunning Thibet, and returned, covered with glory, and laden with spoils, to the capital, while the favourite son, Hajy Khan, having subdued Lohkote, marched with his army against his father in Kashmeer. Zein-ool-Abid-Deen collected his troops, and in the mean time sent letters full of kindness and advice to his son, but without effect. He therefore marched with his army, and encamped on the plain of Buleel. Hajy Khan wished to decline attacking his father; but his troops commenced the action without orders, and many brave officers were killed on both sides. Adhum Khan behaved in the most gallant manner during the battle; and Hajy Khan, unable to withstand the brunt of the royal forces, after a severe engagement, which lasted from sunrise to sunset, was defeated, and fled to Heerpoor, whither he was followed by Adhum Khan, who was restrained by his father from further pursuit. Hajy Khan having collected a small part of his force at that place retreated to the town of Nere. Meanwhile the King, returning to his capital, caused a pillar to be built, round which were suspended the heads of those rebels who had been taken prisoners in the engagement. At this time he deputed Adhum Khan with a force to march and attack the fort of Gujraj; where having seized several of those persons who first promoted the insurrection, he executed them, and seized their property. This measure had the effect of inducing the few Gujraj soldiers who were with Hajy Khan to desert, and go over to Adhum Khan, whom the King at this period declared his representative, and heir to the throne. Adhum Khan ruled for a period of six years, when the inhabitants, suffering severely from his mal-administration, made their complaints to the King at Serinuggur, who sent repeated injunctions to his son. Adhum Khan paid no attention to these communications; but collecting a force at Kootb-ood-Deenpoor, he threatened to attack the capital. The King, however, made terms with him, and pointed out the province of Gujraj as a fit object to gratify his ambition. After his march thither, however, Adhum Khan was reduced to the humiliation of beseeching the assistance of his exiled brother, Hajy Khan. Instead of rendering it, Hajy Khan attacked his brother, but was defeated at the town of Seevapoor, which Adhum Khan laid in ashes. On receipt of this information, the King sent his whole army to attack Adhum Khan, when a severe action took place, in which the latter was defeated, many of his best soldiers killed in the retreat; and, of those who fled to the town of Seevapoor, on the Behut, upwards of three hundred were drowned. The King after this victory joined his army, and marched to Seevapoor, while Adhum Khan was encamped on the opposite bank of the Behut. At this period, Hajy Khan, the King's favourite son, arrived at the town of Baramoola. The King sent his youngest son, Beiram Khan, to congratulate him on his arrival. Adhum Khan now fled with his force by the route of Shahabad to the banks of the Neelab, and the King returned to his capital. At this time he proclaimed his favourite, and now penitent son, Hajy Khan, heir-apparent; who endeavoured to atone for his misconduct by assiduity and attention to his father in his old age. The King was, however, distressed to perceive with what indifference this young man received his advice, with respect to abstaining from the use of wine, and from other licentious habits. Hajy Khan, who conducted all public affairs, was now seized with a bloody flux, and the King's age prevented his transacting business. Seeing matters in this state, the chiefs sent secretly for Adhum Khan, who, appearing at the capital, visited the King, but he refused to forgive him. The Prince Adhum Khan, however, profited by his presence at the capital, and carried on an intrigue against his brother, wishing to be again acknowledged heir; a measure to which he could not induce the chiefs to accede without the King's assent. These chiefs daily urged his Majesty to declare in favour of one or other of his sons, which he obstinately declined; and it is supposed that the dissensions in the palace speedily put an end to the torments of his mind, as he died shortly

A. H. 877.
A. D. 1742.

after, in the sixty-ninth year of his age, A. H. 877, after a reign of nearly fifty-two years.

Before the death of the King, the youngest prince, Beiram Khan, gained so much advantage over his eldest brother, Adhum Khan, that the latter, finding himself completely deserted, marched to Kootb-ood-Deenpoor, where he was frequently attacked by the King's forces, commanded by the two younger brothers, Hajy Khan and Beiram Khan; and being at length compelled to fly, he took the route of Badral to Hindoostan, while Hajy Khan's party was strengthened by the arrival of his son Hussun Khan; so that on the death of the King, Hajy Khan ascended the throne without opposition.

Hajy Khan ascends the throne, under the title of Heidur — becomes disreputable from his propensity to keep low company, and to indulge in vile pursuits — falls from the terrace of his palace, and is killed.

AFTER the burial of the King, his second son, Hajy Khan, was crowned at Sikundurpoor by his brother Beiram, and assumed the title of Heidur. The new king's first act was to raise his son Hussun Khan to the office of Ameer-ool-Omra, bestowing upon him, at the same time, the district of Gujraj as an estate for life, and proclaiming him heir to the crown. He also conferred the district of Nakam on his younger brother, Beiram Khan, and dismissed with presents the several rajas who had come to Sikundurpoor to celebrate his coronation. His subsequent conduct, however, by no means realised the hopes which the nation had entertained of him. He gave himself up entirely to scandalous excesses, and permitted his ministers to exercise flagrant acts of injustice and oppression on his subjects. As an instance of which, he formed a disreputable connection with one Booby, a barber, who, becoming the medium of communication between the King and the people, took from them large bribes for his pretended or real services. Hussun Kechy, ^476a an officer who had distinguished himself in supporting the claims of Hajy Khan to the throne, suffered death through the intrigues of this miscreant. Affairs were in this state, when Adhum Khan, returning from Hindoos-tan to Jummoo, induced the raja of that province to support his claims; but in the mean time, an attack being made on Jummoo by a party of Moguls, Adhum Khan was killed by an arrow, which entering the mouth, penetrated his skull. When the King heard of the death of his brother he caused his body to be brought to Kashmeer, and buried in the vault with his father. In consequence of the shameful conduct of the King, the nobles intimated to his younger brother, Beiram Khan, their willingness to aid in deposing Heidur. This plot coming to the ears of Futteh Khan, the son of the late Ad-hum Khan, he resolved to try his fortune, and therefore marched to the capital, in order, as he stated, to lay at the King's feet the spoils which he had taken from the surrounding countries. Having appeared at court, however, without the royal permission, many of the courtiers whispered stories against him, which induced the King to refuse to see him, or to employ him in any public capacity. Such was the state of parties at the court, when the King, who was one evening carousing on the terrace of his palace, became much intoxicated. On attempting to go below, his foot

A. H. 878.
A. D. 1473.

slipped, and falling from a great height, he was killed, after a short and inglorious reign of fourteen months, A. H. 878.

Ascends the throne — his title disputed by his uncle, Beiram Khan, who is taken prisoner, and suffers death. — Mullik Taj Bhut minister — gives great offence to the people. — Jehangeer Makry, an officer of rank, is induced to quit the court. — Death of the King.

HEIDUR was succeeded by his son Hussun, through the zealous assistance of one Ahmud Ahoo. Having imprisoned all his opponents, the King established his capital at Nowshehra, appointing Ahmud Ahoo his prime minister, with the title of Mullik Ahmud, and his son, Nowroze, to the office of Ameer-i-Dur. ^477a The King's uncle, Beiram Khan, quitted Kashmeer in disgust, and went to India. Hussun renewed the laws and edicts of his grandfather, Zein-ool-Abid-Deen, which had fallen into disuse during the short reign of his father; but some malecontents, who disliked the new order of things, and expecting to derive advantage from a change in the government, invited Beiram Khan to return, persuading him that he would easily succeed in establishing himself on the throne. Beiram Khan marched from India by the route of Kur-mar with this view, and penetrating through the hills, arrived without opposition in the province of Gujraj. The King, who had moved towards Depalpoor, now proceeded to Seevapoor, in order to attack his uncle. He was persuaded by some of his officers to invade India; but his minister, Mullik Ahmud, recommended him to suspend all other objects till the force of his uncle was dispersed. A large detachment under Mullik Taj Bhut opposed Beiram Khan, who on his part expected to be joined by many officers of the Kashmeer army. In this hope he was disappointed; and in an action which took place at Looloopoor, Beiram Khan was defeated, and fled to Zeinpoor; and both he and his son being taken prisoners were brought before the King. Hussun ordered his uncle's eyes to be put out, and he only survived the operation three days. This rebellion being subdued, the King deputed his commander-in-chief, Mullik Taj Bhut, at the instigation of the Raja of Jummoo, to march with the united forces of Kashmeer and Jummoo, by the route of Rajoory, against the King of Dehly. Ajeet Dew, the Raja of Jummoo, having joined and taken command of the allied army, was opposed by Tartar Khan, the Dehly governor of the contiguous district, when the Kashmeer troops were defeated, and Tartar Khan, penetrating into Jum-moo, sacked the town of Seealkote. At this period, the King had two sons born, the eldest (Mahmood Khan) he delivered over to Mullik Taj Bhut, and the youngest (Hoossein Khan) to Mullik Nowroze, the son of his minister Mullik Ahmud. Unfortunately, about this period, disputes arising between Mullik Ahmud and Mullik Taj Bhut, dissensions spread among the nobles, which eventually caused much bloodshed. These civil feuds went so far, that the combatants, on one occasion, absolutely entered the royal apartments with Mullik Ahmud at their head. Such a mark of disrespect induced the King to imprison the minister, who died in confinement of a broken heart. Syud Nasir, one of the King's favourites, who had been distinguished at the court of Zein-ool-Abid-Deen, was also banished, and he shortly afterwards died. The King, however, made the family of the latter some reparation, by inviting his son, Syud Hussun, from Dehly, and appointing him prime minister. That nobleman entirely disappointed the hopes entertained of him; for as soon as he obtained sufficient influence he exercised it in effecting the destruction of many of the other nobles, and in confining the commander-in-chief, Mullik Taj Bhut. Among other officers who fled from his persecution was Jehangeer Makry, who took protection in the fort of Lohkote. Shortly afterwards, the King being taken dangerously ill, by a relapse of his old complaint, the flux, and seeing that he could not long survive, sent for his minister, and thus addressed him:—“All “my own children are too young to be placed “in charge of the government; it is, therefore, “my wish, that one of my nephews, either “Yoosoof Khan, the son of Beiram Khan, or “Futteh Khan, the son of Adhum Khan, should “succeed me.” The minister, pretending submission, promised obedience, and the King shortly afterwards died. But we are not informed of the exact time when this event happened, and, consequently, are unable to fix the precise limit of

A. H. 891.
A. D. 1486.

his reign, which, I am led to believe, must have been about nineteen years.

Is raised to the throne of his father at the age of seven years. — Civil war ensues between a body of Syuds at the head of the government and the citizens of Serinuggur. — The Syuds defeated and expelled the kingdom. — Futteh Khan, the King's cousin, sets up his claim to the throne, and succeeds in usurping the crown. — Arrival of Shah Kasim Anwar Noorbukhsh. — Establishes a religious persecution. — Hindoo temples destroyed. — The tribe of Chuk become converts. — Futteh Khan divides his kingdom into three parts; giving to Mullik Atchy and Shunkur Zeina two portions. — The King Mahomed makes his escape to Hindoostan, and returning with his army recovers his empire — is expelled again by Futteh Khan. — Mahomed regains his throne. — Futteh Khan dies in India. — His son, Iskundur, sets up his claim to the crown, but is defeated. — Mahomed deposed by his minister, Mullik Atchy. — Ibrahim is raised to the government. — Nazook, the son of Ibrahim, is made an instrument of an intrigue to dethrone his father. — He marches with an army from Dehly for that purpose. — Battle of Sullah. — Nazook on the throne. — Ma-homed restored for the fourth time. — Kamran Mirza enters Kashmeer; but is eventually expelled with heavy loss. — The Tartar forces from Kashghar, under Mirza Heidur Doghlat, invade Kashmeer. — The Tartars ravage the country for three months, till at length they are attacked, and a great battle is fought. — Peace concluded, and the Tartars return to Kash-ghar. — Two comets are seen in Kashmeer. — A severe famine. — Death of the King.

IMMEDIATELY after the burial of the King, his prime minister, Syud Hussun, elevated the Prince Mahomed (the late monarch's eldest son) to the throne of Kashmeer, at the age of seven years. On which occasion the contents of the royal treasury, together with the robes and armoury, being displayed before him, the child put aside the jewels and splendid apparel, and laid hold of a bow; from which circumstance a happy omen was drawn that the young king would be a great warrior. The minister, Syud Hussun, being proclaimed regent, prevented any person from having communication with him; which giving offence to the other nobles, they obtained the support of Pursaram, the Raja of Jummoo, and put Syud Hussun and thirty other Syuds to death; after which, having crossed the Behut and broken the bridge, they encamped on the opposite bank of the river, and collected a force. Syud Mahomed, the son of the regent, and the King's uncle, ^482a mustered the royal guards, and proceeded to the palace for his protection. The inhabitants of the city were desirous of releasing Yoosoof Khan, the son of Beiram Khan, and placing him on the throne, or, indeed, any member of the royal family who had attained manhood, and who was able both to defend his own rights, and protect his subjects from the horrors of another civil war. The Syud party, on obtaining the first intimation of the feeling of the people, rushed into the prison of the unfortunate Yoosoof, headed by Syud Ally Khan, and murdered him. Their hands were yet reeking with his blood, when they encountered Mul-lik Taj Bhut; who, boldly upbraiding them for their conduct, also fell a victim to their fury on the spot. Syud Ally Khan, being now at the head of a large body of Syuds, opposed the opposite party, and some severe actions occurred. During these dissensions the town became much infested by thieves. In this state of affairs the Syuds dug a ditch round the city. They confiscated the property, and levelled the houses, of those citizens who joined their enemies on the opposite side of the river; while Jehangeer Makry, who had previously sought safety in the fort of Lohkote, joined them, in spite of advantageous offers made to him by the Syuds. Shortly afterwards, Dawood, the son of Jehangeer, crossed the bridge with a small party of the insurgents, and attacked the Syuds; but most of the assailants falling victims, their heads were elevated on the public minarets, in view of those encamped on the opposite bank of the river. The Syuds, on the following day, made an attack on the lines of the popular party; but they were vigorously opposed by the citizens in their attempt to cross the bridge of boats, on which many of the Syud party were slain; till at length, the bridge giving way, those who were on it at the time were drowned. The Syuds now deputed a messenger to Tartar Khan, governor of the Punjab, for assistance; who, in consequence, sent a considerable force towards the capital of Kashmeer: but on its arrival at Bhimbur it was attacked by Howns, the raja of that place, and completely dispersed. Meanwhile the insurgents kept the Syuds on the alert, and closely besieged them for two months in Serinuggur, till at last they resolved on storming that city; for which purpose they crossed the Behut by three separate boat-bridges. The attacking party was opposed by the Syuds, who were overpowered by numbers, and sought safety behind the ditch within the walls; whither they were so closely pursued by the citizens, that the latter succeeded in entering and setting fire to the town, and slew upwards of two thousand of the Syud party. The Kashmeeries now proceeded in a body to the palace of the young king, and with their own hands placed the crown on his

A. H. 892.
A. D. 1486.

head, in the year 892. They then insisted on the banishment of Syud Ally Khan and the rest of the Syuds; and also on the dismissal of Pursaram, Raja of Jummoo, from the King's councils. Having obtained these objects, it remained to be seen what could be done to satisfy their expectations of personal advantage. Each Kashmeery demanded some preferment for his services, which the state being unable to grant, the prospect of another civil war presented itself. At this period Futteh Khan, (the son of Adhum Khan, and grandson of Zein-ool-Abid-Deen,) who had arrived at Rajoory, reached Jalindur, in order to take advantage of circumstances. He was joined by many malecontents, and marched towards Kashmeer. Futteh Khan expected to have been supported by Jehangeer Makry; but after the success of his party, that officer joined the King, and accompanied him with an army to oppose the invader. Futteh Khan, meanwhile, proceeded by the route of Heerpoor as far as the town of Ood-own, and encamped, with a marsh covering his front; in which position he was attacked by a body of Kashmeer troops, which were repulsed and put to flight; but the main body of the King's troops behaved with so much intrepidity, particularly the King's personal guard, with Jehangeer Makry at their head, that Futteh Khan was in the end defeated, with the loss of fifty men, and was nearly taken prisoner. Meanwhile a report prevailed through the camp that the King had fallen into the enemy's hands; which induced Jehangeer Makry to give up farther pursuit, and to return to camp, where he found all safe. Futteh Khan's army being dispersed, the King returned to the capital; deputing Mullik Yar Bhut to lay waste the country of the Raja of Rajoory, who had afforded Futteh Khan an asylum in his dominions. Futteh Khan now disappeared for some time; but at length collecting a force in the district of Purmgola, he marched towards Serinuggur. Jehangeer Makry proceeded with the royal army to a place called Gukkur, in the district of Nakam; but his attention was again directed towards the capital, on hearing that two state-prisoners, named Suffy and Runga Ray, as well as others confined at Serinuggur, had made their escape. In this conjuncture, Jehangeer Makry resolved to accomplish by stratagem what he thought would be doubtful in fair battle: he therefore held out promises and advantages to the Raja of Rajoory, to induce him to join the King's troops. The intrigue succeeded: Futteh Khan was compelled to retreat to the south, but he attacked and overran the district of Jummoo; and collecting more soldiers, returned to Kashmeer a third time. At this period, the King and Jehangeer Makry recalled the Syud exiles. After their arrival an action took place between the King's army and that of Futteh Khan, in which both sides displayed great courage, but the pretender was defeated. He was, however, soon again in the field; and having attacked the royalists, gave them a total overthrow. The King, on this occasion, was left without a single attendant; and his general, Jehangeer Makry, being severely wounded, sought safety in flight. Mahomed, thus abandoned even by his servants, was seized by the zemindars of Kashmeer, on his return to the capital, and delivered into the hands of Futteh Khan, after a reign of nearly eleven years. From that period

A. H. 902.
A. D. 1496.

he remained a close prisoner, receiving as mild treatment as was consistent with his situation.

On the imprisonment of Mahomed, Futteh Khan, assuming the reins of government, and being formally crowned, was acknowledged King of Kashmeer in the year 902; and appointed Suffy and Runga Ray, the two officers who had lately made their escape, his ministers. About this time, one Meer Shums-ood-Deen, a disciple of Shah Kasim Anwur, the son of Syud Mahomed Noorbukhsh, arrived in Kashmeer from Irak. Futteh Khan made over to this holy personage all the confiscated lands which had lately fallen to the crown; and his disciples went forth destroying the temples of the idolaters, in which they met with the support of the government, so that no one dared to oppose them. In a short time many of the Kashmeeries, particularly those of the tribe of Chuk, became converts to the Noorbukhsh tenets. The persuasion of this sect was connected with that of the Sheeas; but many proselytes, who had not tasted of the cup of grace, ^487a after the death of Meer Shums-ood-Deen, reverted to their idols. Religious disputes went to such lengths among the nobles of the state, that they even drew their swords in the King's presence, and slew each other in the hall of audience. During these broils, Mullik Atchy and Shunkur Zeina, two Kashmeer chiefs, having released the late king, Mahomed, carried him to Baramoola, where they intended to raise a force, and replace him on the throne; but as he showed no symptoms of that energy and resolution necessary to carry their project into effect, they determined to deliver him over again into Futteh Khan's hands. Mahomed, discovering their project, made his escape in the night. Futteh Khan now divided his kingdom into three principalities; and having secured one portion for himself, delivered over the other two to Mullik Atchy and Shunkur Zeina. On the former person he bestowed the title of Wuzeer Mootluk, and on the latter, that of Divan-i-Kool. Such was the state of affairs for some years, when at length Ibrahim, the son of Jehangeer Makry, who had been appointed to his father's situation in the army, went to Hindoostan, and returned to Kashmeer, bringing with him the exiled king, Mahomed, to re-establish his claims. An action ensued at Baramoola, which terminated in favour of Mahomed; and Futteh Khan, being compelled to fly, took the route of Heerpoor to Hindoostan.

A. H. 911.
A. D. 1505. After the defeat of Futteh Khan, which happened when he had held the reins of government for ten years, Ma-homed re-ascended the throne; and nominating Ibrahim Makry to the office of minister, he proclaimed Iskundur Khan, a lineal descendant from Shahab-ood-Deen, heir-apparent. On this occasion he put to death the sons of Mullik Atchy, who were kept at the capital as pledges for their father's behaviour by Futteh Khan. Some time after the second accession of Mahomed, Futteh Khan returned to Kashmeer at the head of a large army; and Mahomed, not having the means or the courage to oppose him, fled, and left the govern-

A. H. 912.
A. D. 1506.

ment in the possession of his rival, after a short reign of about ten months, A. H. 912.

Futteh Khan re-assumed his functions as King of Kashmeer without opposition, and appointed one Jehangeer, of the tribe of Budra, his minister of state, and Shunkur Zeina his minister of finance. After the second expulsion of Mahomed, that monarch sought protection at the court of Sikundur Lody of Dehly, who sent a large force to replace him on his throne; and on the march to Kash-meer he was joined by Jehangeer Budra, who deserted Futteh Khan on account of some slight imposed on him. The army of Mahomed entering Kashmeer by the route of Rajoory, was opposed by the forces of Futteh Khan, commanded by Jehangeer Makry, who with his son were both killed in the action. The Kashmeer troops were defeated, and Futteh Khan again compelled to fly

A. H. 913.
A. D. 1507.

to Hindoostan, where he subsequently died, after his second reign, which lasted for little more than a year.

On the third accession of Mahomed, he placed in close confinement Shunkur Zeina, the late minister of finance, retaining Mullik Atchy in his office of minister of state. After being firmly seated on his throne, he put to death many of the nobles of the court of Futteh Khan, among whom were Suffy and Runga Ray; Shunkur Zeina also eventually died in prison.

A. H. 922.
A. D. 1516. In the year 922, the body of Futteh Khan was brought by his servants from Hindoostan into Kashmeer; and Maho-med went out on foot, attended by a solemn mourning party, to meet it, and followed it to the grave, when it was interred in the family vault of the kings of Kashmeer.

As Mullik Atchy had, during his ministry, confined Ibrahim Makry at Serinuggur, his son, Ab-

A. H. 931.
A. D. 1524.

dal Makry, in the year 931 (being then in India), espoused the cause of Iskundur Khan, the son of the late Futteh Khan, and marched an army for the purpose of placing him on the throne. The King, supported by Mul-lik Atchy, moved to Alwurpoor, in the district of Fankul, to oppose the invader, who being defeated was compelled to throw himself into the fort of Nakam, wherein he was closely besieged by the Kashmeer army under Mullik Atchy. At this period many of the Kashmeery officers, dissatisfied with Mullik Atchy, who exercised regal power, were on the point of going over to Iskundur Khan, when the minister deputed his son with a force to attack him; and although the minister's son fell in the action, Iskundur was defeated, and evacuating the fort, sought safety in flight: Nakam was accordingly occupied by Kashmeer troops, and the Makry army dispersed. After the return of Ma-homed to Kashmeer the third time, the courtiers succeeded in alienating his esteem from his minister; which induced Mullik Atchy to withdraw from court, and settle at Rajoory, where he completely gained the good will of the surrounding rajas. Some time after, Iskundur Khan procuring aid from the Emperor Babur of Dehly, conquered the province of Lohkote. Mullik Yar Chuk, the brother of Mullik Atchy, however, having attacked and made him prisoner, brought him to the King, who caused his eyes to be put out. The conduct of the minister's brother on this occasion restored the confidence of the King to the late minister, whom he sent for, and replaced in his situation. Mullik Atchy conceived that the King had not kept terms with his brother, by putting out the eyes of Iskundur Khan; and in consequence, having, in the first instance, deprived him of most of his personal favourites by imprisoning them, he subsequently deposed the King, and sent him to Lohkote in confinement; after which he raised his son, the Prince Ibrahim, lately arrived from Dehly, to the throne of Kash-

A. H. 932.
A. D. 1525.

meer, in the beginning of the year 932, when Mahomed had reigned nineteen years.

The Prince Ibrahim now ascended the throne, and Mullik Atchy retained the office of minister. At this period, Abdal Makry, who had been driven from his country by the intrigues of Mullik Atchy, fled to Hindoostan, where having obtained a situation in the household of Babur Padshah of Dehly, he induced that monarch to attempt the conquest of Kashmeer. Babur accordingly ordered an army, under Sheikh Ally Beg and Mahmood Khan, to be placed at the disposal of Abdal Makry, who was accompanied by Nazook, the son of Ibrahim, King of Kashmeer, then living with his relatives in Dehly, in order that by proclaiming his title to the throne he might have some plea for invading the country, and prevent that resistance which he knew would be made if the Kashmeeries supposed that the throne was to be filled by a stranger. On information of the approach of the Dehly army to place Nazook on the throne, Mullik Atchy Chuk accompanied the King Ibrahim, who proceeded in person to the town of Sullah, in the district of Fankul, where the two armies opposed each other.

A. H. 932.
A. D. 1525.

In this battle the Kashmeer troops lost many men, and were eventually defeated, the King and his minister both flying from the field. Mullik Atchy reached the capital, whence he was subsequently expelled; but we have no account of the fate of Ibrahim on that occasion. His reign lasted for the short space of eight months.

After the battle of Sullah, the Dehly army marched to Serinuggur, and placed on the throne Nazook, the son of Ibrahim, and grandson to Ma-homed, who was at that period in confinement; and the people, fearful lest the government should fall into the hands of the King of Dehly, received their new monarch with every demonstration of joy. Having left Serinuggur, he proceeded to Now-shehra, his capital, and appointed Abdal Makry his minister. This chief having pursued Mullik Atchy to the town of K'hulnagry, returned and partitioned out the several districts of Kashmeer among the numerous officers of the army; and after rewarding the services of the officers and soldiers of the King of Dehly, permitted them to return to Hindoostan.

On the occupation of Kashmeer by Abdal Makry, he wrote to Mullik Atchy, condemning him for confining the old king, Mahomed; and having sent for that monarch from Lohkote, reinstated him in the government a fourth time. Seven years

after which, in the year 939, he declared his grandson, Nazook, heir-apparent. In this year, also, Babur Padshah of Dehly dying, was succeeded by his son Hoomayoon. Mahomed had no sooner ascended the throne again, than Mullik Atchy, who had fled from the battle of Sullah, made his appearance at the head of a body of the Kashmeer highlanders, on the plain of Kohka. Here he was opposed by Abdal Makry, and being defeated, fled to Hindoostan. At this period, Mirza Kamran, brother of Hoomayoon Padshah of Dehly, was governor of the Punjab. This prince being joined by Sheikh Ally Beg and Mahmood, who left the court of Kashmeer in disgust, was prevailed on to send a force, under the orders of Mahram Beg, to conquer that kingdom. The Kashmeer troops could not be brought to oppose the Moguls, but fled to the hills; while the Punjabies, laying waste the fields, and burning the towns, put to death all the inhabitants who fell in their way. Abdal Makry, who at first thought this invasion had been undertaken at the instance of Mullik Atchy, being now convinced of the contrary, sent for him and the chiefs of the Chuk and Makry tribes, who mutually exchanged the most solemn oaths to unite in one common cause. The junction of Mullik Atchy, who had great influence over his countrymen, at such a moment, enabled the King to collect a respectable force, with which he completely defeated the Punjabies, and expelled them the country. After the departure of the Punjab army, Mullik Atchy became disgusted with the duplicity and pride of Abdal Makry, and was on the point of abandoning the King's councils, and

A. H. 939.
A. D. 1532.

proceeding to Hindoostan, when in the year 939 Syud Khan, King of Kash-ghar, deputed his son, Sikundur Khan, with one Mirza Heidur Doghlat, to march south at the head of an army of twelve thousand men. These troops invaded Kashmeer by the route of Thibet and Lar. The inhabitants fled, panic-struck, to the mountains, while the merciless Tartars laid waste the country, sacked the towns, and levelled, with barbarous malignity, many of the magnificent palaces which the kings of Kash-meer had constructed. The Tartars, meeting with no opposition, loaded themselves with spoil, and put to death such unfortunate wretches as they discovered hid in holes or caves. This devastation continued for upwards of three months, when Abdal Makry, Mullik Atchy Chuk, and other officers, who had taken refuge in the town of Chuk-dura, finding their retreat insecure, retreated to Baramoola, living occasionally in the hills. They at last resolved to attack the Tartars, which they did with great disparity of numbers. On this occasion the Kashmeeries lost many valuable officers, and the Tartars suffered equally. The former were at one time on the point of giving way, when Abdal Makry and Mullik Atchy Chuk appearing in the ranks, their example induced their countrymen to rally, and they succeeded in repelling the last charge of the Tartars. Night closed the scene, and the morning presented the opposed armies employed in burying their dead, which amounted to many thousands. After this battle a truce was agreed on, and a peace ensued, on which the King of Kashmeer consented to give his daughter in marriage to the young Tartar prince Sikundur, who then returned to Kashghar. In

A. H. 940.
A. D. 1533.

the year 940 two comets appeared in Kashmeer; and a severe famine succeeded, which compelled many of the inhabitants to fly their country, during a period of ten months, while the dearth lasted. The old enmity of Abdal Makry and Mullik Atchy Chuk was again renewed; but the former having most influence at the capital, the latter was obliged to quit, and retire to Zeinpoor. The King did not long survive. He was seized with a fever; and

A. H. 942.
A. D. 1535.

after lingering a few months, died, in the year 942, after a checkered and interrupted reign of fifty years.

IT appears from the Towareekh Kashmeery that Ibrahim, who had formerly usurped the crown from his father Mahomed, and had escaped during the battle of Sullah, in the year 932, now returned, and was acknowledged king. During his reign we find him alternately the passive pageant of royalty in the hands of his two ministers, Mullik Atchy Chuk and Abdal Makry. Amid the dissensions of these two chiefs, Abdal Makry, collecting an army, marched against the capital; and his rival, accompanied by the King, defeated him in a battle

A. H. 947.
A. D. 1540.

which took place near the mountains, and compelled him to fly to Gujraj. At length Ibrahim died in the year 947.

Ascends his father's throne. — The dissensions between the races of Chuk and Makry continue. — Abdal Makry invites Hoo-mayoon Padshah to invade Kashmeer — accompanies Mirza Heidur Doghlat with a force — subverts the government of the Chuks. — Abdal Makry dies, leaving Mirza Heidur Doghlat at the head of the state. — Atchy Chuk procures the aid of Sheer Shah, King of Dehly. — The Hindoostan troops defeated. — Mirza Heidur removes the seat of government from Serinuggur to Indrakote — invades little Thibet — eventually conquers both great and little Thibet on the north, and the districts of Pugly and Rajoory on the south. — Mirza Heidur is killed in an endeavour to suppress an insurrection. — An oligarchy succeeds, which, for form's sake, acknowledges Na-zook as King. — Shortly after which he is deposed.

IBRAHIM was succeeded by his son Nazook. This prince had scarcely ascended the throne three months when he was expelled by the army of Hoomayoon Padshah of Dehly; which invading Kashmeer conquered that province, as we shall proceed to relate.^497a A. H. 948.
A. D. 1541. In the year 948, Hoomayoon Padshah being defeated by Sheer Shah, King of Bengal, fled his country, and retreated to Lahore; when Abdal Makry, Zungy Chuk, and many other Kashmeery nobles, wrote letters, inviting him to the conquest of their country. These letters were sent by one Mirza Heidur Doghlat, who was accordingly authorised to carry into effect this project. On reaching Mein, Mirza Heidur was joined by Abdal Makry and Zungy Chuk, from whence they proceeded to Rajoory, with a force not exceeding altogether four thousand horse. Mullik Atchy Chuk, then virtually ruler of Kash-meer, advanced with a force of three thousand cavalry and fifty thousand infantry to the Kurmul pass, of which he took possession. Mirza Heidur, on receiving intimation of this movement, counter-marched, and took the route of Punnuj. Atchy Chuk, conceiving that pass sufficiently protected by its intricacies to prevent the approach of cavalry, took no precautions to render it more difficult, but he was mistaken; for the Hindoostan army having penetrated the mountains made their first appearance at the city of Serinuggur, which they sacked. Abdal Makry and Zungy Chuk now assumed the reins of government, and immediately assigned the revenues of some districts solely for the payment of the army. Shortly after which, Abdal Makry, who was now old, having made over his children to the care of Mirza Heidur, died. Atchy Chuk, who found that he could not make head against Mirza Heidur, went in person to Hindoostan, and solicited the assistance of Sheer Shah, who had at that period assumed the title of King of Hindoostan. That monarch deputed Hoossein Khan Sheerwany, with five thousand horse and two war-elephants, to accompany Atchy Chuk. Mirza Heidur and Zungy Chuk, hearing of the approach of the Dehly army, moved out to oppose it. The two forces met between the towns of Dhunuj and Gava, where an action took place, when Mullik Atchy being defeated, fled to Purumgola, and the Dehly army was entirely routed.

A. H. 950.
A. D. 1543. In the year 950, Mirza Heidur changed his capital from Serinuggur to Indra-kote, and at the same period Zungy Chuk, becoming suspicious of his colleague, left the capital and joined Atchy Chuk, when they both collected a force and marched to Serinuggur, for the purpose of subverting the government of Mirza Heidur. Here they were joined by Bei-ram, the son of Zungy Chuk, who had made his escape from the capital. Mirza Heidur deputed Bundgan Koka and Khwaja Hajy Kashmeery to oppose the confederates, who were completely defeated, and fled to Purumgola.

Mirza Heidur, having left Bundgan Koka as his lieutenant in Kashmeer during his absence, proceeded with an army for the purpose of invading Thibet, where he reduced the district of Looshoo and several others; and on his return being op-

A. H. 952.
A. D. 1545.

posed by Zungy Chuk on the frontier, in the year 952, the latter was killed, and his son, Ghazy Khan, taken prisoner. During the absence of Mirza Heidur, Atchy Chuk, and his son Mahomed Chuk, died of an epidemic disease, so that the most formidable rivals of Mirza

Heidur were thus removed. In the year 954, an ambassador from Kashghar joined Mirza Heidur at Lar.

At this period, Khwaja Beiram, the son of Musaood Chuk, who having asserted his independence had kept possession of Gujraj for the last seven years, was induced to accept of the friendship of Jan Boozoorg Mirza, who took the most solemn oaths to abstain from attacking him; but being one day in his company, he put Beiram Chuk to death, and brought his head to Mirza Heidur at Lar, conceiving by this measure to gain his favour. Abdy Zeina, one of Mirza Heidur's officers, concluding that the act had been preconcerted with Mirza Heidur, quitted the court, and indignantly declared his detestation of the man who could commit murder in violation of his oath. Mirza Heidur, however, denied any connivance or participation in the deed. Shortly afterwards, Mirza Heidur proceeded for the purpose of attacking the country of Kishtwar, and deputed Bundgan Koka with other officers in command of the advance-guard of the army. This detachment made one march from Charloo to Dote, a distance of three days' journey, came up with the Kishtwar army, and encamped on the opposite bank of the river. Neither army could cross, and a sharp discharge of arrows and musketry was kept up, though without much effect. Some stragglers from Mirza Heidur's camp lost their road, and joined the advance at Wary; but upon their arrival there, a violent gale of wind came on, and raised the dust of the whole plain. At this moment a small detachment of the Kishtwar army then in the town, taking advantage of the circumstance, sallied and attacked the invaders. Bund-gan Koka and twenty-five officers of note were killed, and the detachment made the best of its way to join Mirza Heidur. Shortly after, in

A. H. 955.
A. D. 1548.

the year 955, Mirza Heidur invaded Little Thibet, and not only succeeded in conquering that country, but subsequently added Great Thibet, Rajoory, and Pugly to his dominions.

Moolla Kasim was nominated to the government of Little Thibet, Moolla Hussun to that of Great Thibet, Mahomed Nuzur to that of Ra-

A. H. 956.
A. D. 1549.

joory, and Dawood Ally to the province of Pugly. In the year 956, Mirza Hei-dur marched against the fortress of Deebul, where he was met by Adum Khan Guk-kur, who endeavoured to mediate a reconciliation between Mirza Heidur and Dowlut Chuk, the nephew of the late Atchy Chuk; but Dowlut Chuk, offended at the reception he met with, left the meeting abruptly, and even carried away the elephant which he had brought to present to Mirza Heidur. Shortly after which, Mirza Heidur returned to Kashmeer. At a subsequent period, Dowlut Chuk, and Ghazy Khan Chuk, the son of Zungy Chuk, who had lately been released from confinement, together with Yehya Chuk, connected themselves with Heibut Khan Neazy, who having fled from Sulim Shah of Dehly, now took refuge at Rajoory. Heibut Khan was pursued by Sulim Shah in person till he reached the confines of the district of Nowshehra, when the former having deputed Syud Khan Neazy to crave his mercy, Sulim Shah consented to be reconciled, on condition of Heibut Khan sending his mother and son as hostages for his good behaviour into the royal camp; after which he fell back on Bhimbur, in the district of Seealkote. The Kashmeer partisans, who had joined Heibut Khan at Rajoory, prevailed on him to go to Deebul, and endeavoured to persuade him to depose Mirza Heidur. He not only refused his assent, but sent a bramin to inform Mirza Heidur of their intention. Heibut Khan moved to the town of Sub-zeea, in the district of Jummoo, where the Chuk confederacy, having intimation of his treachery, left him. Ghazy Khan Chuk went direct to the capital, and abandoning his associates joined Mirza Heidur, while the rest, quitting Kashmeer, retired to the court of Sulim Shah, King of Dehly. In the

A. H. 957.
A. D. 1550.

year 957, Mirza Heidur deputed Khwaja Shums-ood-Deen with a large and valuable present of saffron to the King of Dehly, who sent Yaseen Khan Afghan as ambassador, to accompany Khwaja Shums-ood-Deen on his return to Kashmeer, with other presents, consisting of horses and some of the finest Indian muslins, to Mirza Heidur, who having returned to Yaseen Khan Afghan a quantity of saffron with some beautiful shawls, despatched him back to his court.

A. H. 958.
A. D. 1551. In the year 958, Mirza Heidur appointed Kiran Bahadur, a commander of Mogul horse, to the government of Bheerbul. This measure gave great offence to the inhabitants, who attacked him, and resisted his authority. Mirza Heidur, in order to support his lieutenant, put himself at the head of the Moguls, and was killed by an arrow in a night-attack made upon his camp, and the Moguls were defeated.

A. H. 958.
A. D. 1551.

Thus fell Mirza Heidur Doghlat, in the tenth year after his accession to the government of Kashmeer, in the year 958.

After the death of Mirza Heidur, and the defeat of the Moguls, the whole kingdom was thrown into confusion. The leading men, however, having formed a kind of administration, divided the territory into three principalities or districts; that of Dewsur fell to the lot of Dowlut Chuk, that of Dhunuj to Ghazy Khan Chuk, and Gujraj to Yoosoof Chuk and Beiram Chuk, while Abdy Zeina remained at the capital, and was virtually ruler of the whole; though, for form's sake, Na-zook, the son of Ibrahim, and grandson of the late Mahomed, was seated on the throne of Kashmeer.

A. H. 959.
A. D. 1552. In the beginning of the year 959 the Kashmeer officers, after having each secured a portion of the kingdom, became discontented at the inequality of their shares, and in consequence a civil war arose, in which four parties at first opposed each other, under separate leaders; viz.

1. Abdy Zeina, with the Zeina tribe.

2. Hussun, the son of Abdal, with the Makry tribe.

3. The Kapoories, under Beiram and Yoosoof Chuk, with their tribes.

4. The Kamies, under Ghazy Khan, Atchy, and Dowlut Chuk, with their tribes.

These dissensions continued for some time, till at the end of two months after the accession of Nazook he was deposed a second time, and his brother Ibrahim was raised to the throne in his stead.

The brother of Nazook, is raised to the throne by Dowlut Chuk. — The party of Ghazy Khan obtains an ascendency, and Ibrahim is deposed.

THE civil dissensions being conducted with the utmost rancour, the party which possessed the person of Nazook deposed him, and placed his son Ibrahim on the throne; on which occasion the Ka-mies under Dowlut Chuk appear to have gained the advantage, since he assumed the title of minister to the royal pageant at Serinuggur. Meanwhile Mirza Hajy, minister to the late Mirza Heidur Doghlat, made his escape, and fled to Sulim

A. H. 960.
A. D. 1552.

Shah of Dehly. In the year 960, a disagreement arising between Ghazy Khan and Dowlut Chuk, both of whom were of the Kamy party, another revolution suc-

A. H. 961.
A. D. 1553.

ceeded. On the following year Ghazy Khan, having separated himself from Dowlut Chuk, was joined by Hoossein Makry and Shums Zeina, from Hindoostan; while Dowlut Chuk was joined by Yoosoof Chuk and Beiram Chuk. Several trifling skirmishes took place between these parties for a period of two months, when peace was concluded. At this time a body of Thibetians made an inroad into Kash-meer, and drove off some sheep from the district of Gava. The invaders were immediately pursued by a large body of Kashmeeries under Heibut Khan, the son of Ghazy Khan; for men were now ready to follow, at a moment's warning, any leader who offered them an object of plunder. Heibut Khan retaliated by invading Thibet, and sacking every thing in his way; and having spread desolation far and wide, arrived at one of the forts, which he took, and put the governor to death with his own hand. Proceeding far into the interior of the country, he obliged the Thibetians to present him with three hundred horses, five thousand Puttoo cloaks, one hundred sheep, and thirty Kootas cows. ^506a He compelled them also to restore all the good horses they took during their last inroad into Kashghar; which Heibut Khan retained for his father, Ghazy Khan Chuk, to whom he presented them on his return.

A. H. 962.
A. D. 1554. The year 962 was remarkable for a severe earthquake in Kashmeer; on which occasion the town of Dampoor, with several orchards and gardens, was removed from the eastern to the western bank of the Behut river†; ^506b and the town of Jadra, situated under the mountains, was destroyed by the falling of great part of the mountain on the town, in which upwards of six thousand persons perished.

SCARCELY had five months elapsed from the coronation of Ibrahim, through the agency of Dowlut Chuk, before Ghazy Khan and his party attained such an increase of power, that he deposed and blinded Ibrahim. He also drove Dowlut Chuk from

A. H. 963.
A. D. 1555.

the capital; and in the year 963 he established upon the throne of Kashmeer Ismael, the brother of the late King Ibrahim. At this time Hubeeb, the King's son, wished to unite with Dowlut Chuk, on which Ghazy Khan resolved to seize him; and on hearing that he had gone in a boat on the river to shoot ducks, Ghazy Khan seized the horses of his party. Dowlut Chuk endeavoured to escape to the hills on foot, but was overtaken, and his eyes put out. After this event the Prince Hubeeb became more reconciled to his situation. Ghazy Khan now wished to confer the office of minister on Nanuk Chuk, the nephew of Dowlut Chuk, but he disdained the offer, and fled the country.

On the death of Ismael, his son, Hubeeb, is raised to the throne. — Severe struggle for supremacy among the race of Chuk, in which Dowlut Chuk prevails. — Invasion by Shah Abool Maly from Hindoostan — is defeated. — Hubeeb is deposed by Ghazy Khan Chuk.

ISMAEL died two years after his accession, and his son Hubeeb was placed on the throne in his

A. H. 964.
A. D. 1556.

stead. In the latter end of the year 964, the following persons, Noosrut Chuk, Nanuk Chuk, Shunkur Chuk, the brother of Ghazy Khan, Yoosoof Chuk, and Husty Chuk, all bound themselves by oaths to take advantage of Ghazy Khan the first time he became intoxicated to put him to death, and to raise his brother, Hoossein Chuk, then in close confinement, to the throne of Kashmeer. Ghazy Khan, obtaining information of their intentions, contrived to gain over Yoosoof Chuk and Shunkur Chuk, while Noos-rut Chuk and Husty Chuk resolved to occupy the country in the neighbourhood with troops. Noosrut Chuk was seized and confined; but Hu-beeb Chuk and Nanuk Chuk made their escape, and collecting a few men crossed the river, destroyed the bridges, and formed a junction with Husty Chuk. Ghazy Khan sent troops against them; but in a severe action which took place he was defeated, and compelled to retreat, while Hubeeb Chuk marched with flying colours to Hamoon. Ghazy Khan, upon this, marched on to Domra, where he procured three or four boats, and crossing the river with three elephants, and a force of three hundred men, attacked Hubeeb Chuk a second time. On his arrival at Khalidgur, the forces were again opposed to each other. Hubeeb Chuk was defeated, and being seized in crossing the Muchbul, his head was cut off, and suspended in the town of Kulanamut, where he usually resided.

About this period, Beiram Chuk arriving from Hindoostan received from Ghazy Khan the district of Kohtahamoon in jageer; and having taken his departure from Serinuggur, he repaired to Mu-lunchah, in the district of Rutungur, his native town, whither Shunkur Chuk and his other associates joined him, when they began to collect troops at Soopapoor. Ghazy Khan sent his sons and relations to attack them, but the rebels fled into the hills. Ghazy Khan now proceeded to the district of Kohtahamoon, where he remained for several days; when at length Ahmud Hoorein, a son of his brother Heidur Chuk, pledged himself to seize Beiram Chuk, and bring him to Serinuggur.

Ahmud Hoorein went to Sumurkote, a place occupied by a people called Russies, ^509a a description of Sofy. He seized some of these people, and enquired of them where Beiram Chuk had gone. They replied, that they had conveyed him in a boat to Nadily, and delivered him safe over to Ameer Zeina. These Russies are an agricultural people, employing themselves either in sowing grain or planting fruit trees. They live in a society by themselves, and do not marry. Ahmud Hoorein now proceeded to the house of Ameer Zeina, and after much search he seized Beiram Chuk, whom he brought to Serinuggur, where he was strangled.

At this time Shah Abool Maly, who had been expelled from Lahore, fell into the hands of some Gukkurs. In this condition, notwithstanding his fetters, he made his escape on the back of Yoosoof Chuk, and procuring the aid of Humal Gukkur and Heidur Chuk, he resolved to attack Kashmeer. On reaching Rajoory he was joined by several persons of that place, as well as by Dowlut Chuk (the blind), Futteh Chuk, and other Chuks, as also

A. H. 965.
A. D. 1557.

by Gowhur Makry; and in the year 965 Shah Abool Maly invaded Kashmeer. On approaching Baramoola, Heidur Chuk and Futteh Chuk, whose duty it was to guard the passes, went to Madooky, while Shah Abool Maly preserved such strict discipline among his troops, that no soldier dared molest the inhabitants on any pretence. On reaching Baramoola, which is not far from Madooky, the invaders occupied a height. Ghazy Khan was encamped at a place called Gahwar, and detached his brother Hoossein Khan to a short distance in advance. This movement gave an opportunity to the confederate Chuks who had joined Shah Abool Maly to attack Hoos-sein Khan, and oblige him to fall back. Ghazy Khan allowed the Chuks to penetrate into his lines before he became the assailant, when his troops attacked them vigorously, and nearly annihilated the whole force of the enemy. This event compelled Shah Abool Maly to retreat out of the country without risking another engagement. Ghazy Khan returned to Mein, where he put to death all the Mogul prisoners which had fallen into his hands in the late engagement, excepting only one, Hafiz Mirza Hoosseiny, who was a favourite singer of Hoomayoon Padshah.

A. H. 966.
A. D. 1558. In the year 966, Ghazy Khan, instead of continuing that benevolent prince which he had before proved himself to his subjects, became so inflated with pride and the importance of his situation, that he disgusted his old friends and adherents, who withdrew from about his person in consequence of his giving a loose to his passions, and committing many flagrant acts of injustice and cruelty. At this period, a report reached the ear of Ghazy Khan that his son, Heidur Chuk, was plotting his destruction, in order to hasten his own elevation to the throne. Ghazy Khan directed his minister, Mahomed Jooneid, to reprove him severely; but the young man, irritated at the liberty of speech which the minister thought proper to use on the occasion, drew his dagger, and stabbed him to the heart. On which Ghazy Khan, without seeing his son, ordered him to be carried to Zeingur, and executed.

A. H. 967.
A. D. 1559. In the year 967, Kiran Bahadur arriving at Jowlapoor from Hindoostan with seven war elephants and a large army, remained there three months, where he was joined by Noosrut Chuk, Futteh Chuk, and others, as well as by some Gukkur officers of distinction. There he delayed some time longer, expecting to be joined by more of the malecontents. Those who had already united with him, now becoming disgusted with his apparent indifference, quitted him, and went over to Ghazy Khan. Kiran Bahadur's army being, in consequence, much weakened, Ghazy Khan sent a strong detachment of infantry from Nowrozekote to attack it. Kiran Bahadur was defeated, and fled to the fort of Duria, leaving his elephants in the hands of his enemies.

After his accession a dreadful disease breaks out on the King. — Civil war throughout Kashmeer. — The sons of Ghazy Khan wage war against Thibet. — Ghazy Khan abdicates the throne in favour of his brother Hoossein Khan.

FIVE years had elapsed since the elevation of Hu-beeb, when Ghazy Chuk, imprisoning him, declared himself king, and caused public prayers to be read, and coin to be struck, in his name; but shortly after his accession, the leprosy, ^513a which had formerly made its appearance on him, broke out so violently that he nearly lost all his fingers.

A. H. 968.
A. D. 1560. In the year 968, Futteh Chuk, Gowhur Chuk, and Rung Ray, fled from the capital, and collected a force in the hills. They were pursued by Hoossein Chuk, the brother of Ghazy Shah, with two thousand men; and a heavy fall of snow coming on, most of the insurgents, being without camp-equipage, fell victims to its effects. The few persons, however, who did escape, fled to Gohore, and in the following year threw themselves on the mercy of Hoossein Chuk, who interceded with his brother in their behalf.

A. H. 970.
A. D. 1562. In the year 970, Ghazy Shah marched at the head of his army to Lar, from whence he sent his son, Ahmud Khan, accompanied by Futteh Khan and Nasir Kutaby, to invade the territory of Thibet. When they arrived within ten miles of the border, Futteh Khan proceeded to the capital without receiving Ahmud Khan's orders; and as the Thibetians were neither capable nor willing to oppose the Kash-meer troops, they agreed to pay a large sum of money as a ransom for their country. The Prince Ahmud Khan, who was entrusted with the expedition into Thibet, was so much vexed that he had had no share in the invasion conducted by Futteh Khan that he resolved to enter Thibet in spite of the conditions made by the Thibetians. On this occasion, however, Futteh Khan lost his life, and the Prince Ahmud sustained so severe a defeat, that he was constrained to return with disgrace. Ghazy Shah, being altogether disappointed at the conduct of his son, recalled him.

A. H. 971.
A. D. 1563. In the year 971, Ghazy Shah, advancing in person to the confines of Thibet, encamped at a place called Mokudkar; but the leprosy having now deprived him of his eyesight he grew irritable and peevish, and committed so many unpopular and cruel acts that the nation anxiously desired his death, while his brother, Hoossein, and his son, Ahmud, each endeavoured to gain popularity, in order to establish his claim to the crown. The moment Ghazy Shah ascertained that these two parties existed he returned to Serinuggur, and secured the succession to his brother, Hoossein Khan, by abdicating the throne in his favour, after a short reign of four years.

Ascends the throne of his brother. — Remarkable mode of distributing his property adopted by the late king. — Hoossein Khan causes his nephew, Ahmud, to be blinded. — Death of the ex-king. — Hoossein Shah receives an embassy from Akbur, and sends his daughter to Agra to marry that emperor. — The Kashmeer princess is sent back to her father. — This insult tends to break the King's heart. — His abdication and death.

AFTER the secession of Ghazy Shah he divided his personal effects into two lots, giving one to his children, and sending the other half to the shops, requiring the shop-keepers to pay him a certain sum of money. The demand being treble the value of the property, the merchants came to Hoos-sein Khan, and entreated him to advise his brother to give up so strange an intention as that of a monarch selling his personal effects. Ghazy Shah, who was reduced by age as well as disease to a state of second childhood, insisted on the shopkeepers purchasing his goods; and he became so enraged against Hoossein Shah that he regretted having abdicated in his favour, and now wished to establish his son, Ahmud Khan, on the throne; for which purpose he collected a force in the suburbs, with the intention of dethroning his brother Hoossein. The new King, however, was enabled, without coming to action, to dismember the old King's army, and to reduce his brother to the necessity of retreating to Zeinpoor, where he remained three months, and then returned to Serinuggur. Meanwhile Hoossein Shah, being firmly seated on the throne, made new regulations

A. H. 972.
A. D. 1564.

for the financial departments. In the year 972 he sent his brother, Shunkur Chuk, to assume charge of the government of Nowshehra and Rajoory; but the latter shortly afterwards appeared at the head of a force in open rebellion. Hoossein Shah deputed an army under the command of Mahomed Khan Makry to attack his brother, whom having defeated, the general returned to the capital, where he was greeted by Hoossein Shah, who went out to meet and congratulate him. Shortly after the arrival of the army, some of the officers concerted a scheme to put the King to death; but he discovered the plot, and seizing the ringleaders, caused their eyes to be put out.

A. H. 973.
A. D. 1565. In the following year, 973, his prime minister, Khan-ooz-Zuman, was induced to attack the palace during his absence, with the intention, after seizing the treasures, of proclaiming himself king; but his scheme was defeated by the exertions of Musaood Paik, the officer of the King's body-guard, who seizing the minister's son, and having cut off his head, exposed it to his party, which fled. The minister was shortly after secured, and the King ordered his execution; while Musaood Paik was elevated to the situation of minister, with the title of Moobariz Khan, and the estate of the district of Fankul was made over to him.

In the following year, Hoossein Shah, perceiving that attempts were so frequently made to dethrone him, conceived it necessary, for his personal safety, to incapacitate his nephew and rival, Ahmud Khan, from reigning, by causing him to be blinded. The news of this event had such an effect on the old king, Ghazy Khan, who was still living, that he died of a broken heart.

A. H. 975.
A. D. 1567. In the year 975, the King growing jealous of the rising power of his minister, Moobariz Khan, seized and confined him, and appointed one Booly Govind to his situation; but the latter being detected in embezzling forty thousand bales of shawls, he was also imprisoned, and Ally Koka was raised to the office of minister.

A. H. 976.
A. D. 1568. In the year 976, Kazy Hubeeb, a person of the Hunefy persuasion, after leaving the great mosque on Friday, went to pay his devotions at the tombs of some holy persons at the foot of the Maran hills. On this occasion one Yoosoof, a person of the Sheea persuasion, being present, drew his sword, and wounded the Kazy on the head. He levelled also another blow at the Kazy, who, in endeavouring to save his head with his hand, had his fingers cut off. This attack arose out of no other cause than the animosity which existed between the two sects. On this occasion, Mowlana Kumal, the Kazy of Seealkote, was present. Yoo-soof, after wounding Kazy Hubeeb, made his escape. The King, although himself of the Sheea persuasion, sent persons to seize Yoosoof; and he required several holy and learned men, such as Moolla Yoosoof, Moolla Feroze, and others, to investigate the matter, and to award punishment according to the law. It is related that these worthies said that it was lawful to put Yoosoof to death. The Kazy who was wounded declared, that as he had not died of his wounds the law did not admit of the culprit being executed. He was, however, notwithstanding, stoned to death. About this time a number of persons of the Sheea sect arrived with Mirza Mookeem and Meer Yakoob, who came as ambassadors to Serinuggur from Akbur, Emperor of Dehly. Hoossein Shah caused his own tents to be pitched for them at Heerapoor; and when they arrived there, he went forth to meet and escort them. After which, embarking in boats with the son of Hoossein Shah, they proceeded in state to the city of Serinuggur. Hoossein Shah did not go in the boat, but rode on horseback, and prepared the house of Hoossein Makry for the reception of the ambassadors. After some days, Mirza Mookeem, being of the same persuasion as the assassin Yoosoof, required of Hoossein Shah that he should send those learned men who had pronounced the sentence of death on that culprit to him; with which Hoossein Shah complied. Kazy Zein, himself a Sheea, insisted that the sentence pronounced by the persons by whom Yoosoof had been tried was erroneous. The judges said that they had not positively sentenced Yoosoof to death, but declared that it was lawful to execute a person convicted of the crime of which he was found guilty. Mirza Mookeem now ordered the judges into confinement, and made them over to Futteh Khan. Hoossein Shah left the city, and went in a boat to Kamraj; and Futteh Khan, at the instance of Mirza Mookeem, the Dehly ambassador, caused the holy men to be put to death; after which, ropes were tied to their feet, and they were dragged through the streets and markets of the town. Hoossein Shah, on his return, after presenting the Indian ambassadors with some valuable articles for their master, sent his daughter to be married to Akbur Padshah, and acknowledged his supremacy. In the year 977 (A. D. 1569) news arrived in Kashmeer that the Emperor Akbur, on hearing of the conduct of his ambassadors at Kash-meer, ordered them to be publicly executed at Agra; and as a token of his indignation and horror at the conduct of Hoossein Shah, who had sanctioned such a proceeding in his kingdom, he refused to receive his daughter, and sent her back to Kashmeer. ^519a This circumstance had such an effect on the mind of Hoossein Shah, that he was seized with a violent illness, and was soon rendered totally unfit to transact public business. Most of the chiefs now quitting the court, waited on his brother, Ally Khan, at Shewpoor; whence they induced him to march to the capital. On his arrival within fourteen or fifteen miles of Seri-nuggur, the whole of the court-party deserted Hoossein Shah; and that monarch was compelled to abdicate his throne in favour of his brother. He accordingly sent to him the Koottas canopy, and the other insignia of royalty. Ally Khan was formally acknowledged King; while Hoossein Shah,

A. H. 977.
A. D. 1569.

leaving Serinuggur, went to Zeinpoor, where he died, three months afterwards, of dysentery, in the same year, viz. A. H. 977.

Succeeds his brother on the throne. — An imposter, called Shah Arif, enters Kashmeer. — The King gives him his daughter in marriage. — The imposter exposed and expelled from the country. — An embassy from Dehly. — Death of Ally Chuk.

ON the death of Hoossein, his brother Ally was formally crowned at Serinuggur; and Dookna, the late minister to Hoossein Shah, received from the new monarch the seals of office. At this time, Shah Arif, a dervish of the Sheea persuasion, and who claimed relationship to Shah Tahmasp of Persia, arrived in Kashmeer from Lahore; where he had for some time lived under the protection of Hoossein Kooly Khan, governor of the Punjab. Ally, who was himself a Sheea, was so pleased with this stranger, that he gave him his daughter in marriage; while Ally Chuk, the son of Nowroze Chuk, and Ibrahim, the son of Ghazy Khan, absolutely worshipped this holy personage, and declared him to be the Imam Mehdy, who is to appear again in the last days. This infatuation carried them so far, that they resolved to dethrone Ally, and to raise Shah Arif to the government. The moment the King heard this, he took measures to persecute the dervish. The holy man gave out that he would, by means of his sanctity, convey himself to Lahore in one day; and on the following morning having disappeared, his disciples concluded that he had been transported by means of his art to some other country; but he was discovered to have paid a large sum to the ferryman to carry him across the river, and was taken at Baramoola, whither he had travelled. He again escaped, and was taken at the hill of Mehtur Sooliman; after which the King fined him in the sum of one thousand ashrufies, and taking away his daughter from him, compelled

A. H. 979.
A. D. 1571.

him to quit the kingdom. In the year 979, Ally, the son of Nowroze Chuk, represented that the minister, Dookna, had plundered the country, and that when spoken to on the subject he had conducted himself with great insolence. The King accordingly caused Dookna to be seized and sent to Gujraj, whence he effected his escape to the court of Hoossein Kooly Khan, governor of the Punjab; but that chief not receiving him with the cordiality he expected, he returned to Nowshehra, in Kashmeer, where he was apprehended, and sent to Serinuggur.

A. H. 980.
A. D. 1572.

In the year 980 Ally Shah marched at the head of his army to Gunwar, commonly called Kishtwar, and having espoused the daughter of the prince of that country, returned to his capital, where he received an embassy, consisting of Moolla Eshky and Kazy Sudr-ood-Deen, from the court of Dehly; the result of which was, that Akbur was proclaimed Emperor of Kashmeer in the public prayers. Ally Shah Chuk, at the request of Akbur, now sent his niece ^523a to

A. H. 984.
A. D. 1575.

be married to the Prince Sulim.† ^523b In the year 984 a severe famine was experienced in Kashmeer, in which many thousands of the inhabitants died. In

A. H. 986.
A. D. 1578.

the year 986 Ally Shah was killed by a fall from his horse, after a reign of nine years.

Succeeds his father on the throne — attacks and slays his uncle, Abdal Khan — is eventually driven from his country by Gowhur Chuk — proceeds to India — obtains the aid of Akbur Padshah — returns to Kashmeer — defeats Gowhur Chuk, and deprives him of sight. — A new insurrection created, which is suppressed. — Ambassadors arrive from Akbur. — The King's two sons return with them to the Dehly court. — Akbur arrives at Lahore, and proposes to visit Kashmeer. — Yoosoof Shah wishes to meet and escort him, but is prevented by his chiefs. — Akbur causes Kashmeer to be invaded. — Peace concluded. — A second invasion. — The Kashmeer prince makes considerable resistance. — Final conquest of Kashmeer by Akbur.

ON the death of Ally he was succeeded by his son Yoosoof, while the late King's brother, Abdal Khan, apprehensive of his nephew's designs on his person, withdrew from the capital. Yoosoof wrote to his uncle, entreating him to lay aside all suspicion, and even requested him to come to court, promising faithfully to abide by his advice, and even offering to make over to him the government, if he were disposed to assume the charge of public affairs. This communication, which was sent by Syud Moobarik Khan, was not delivered to Abdal Khan, as was intended; and the messenger returned to Serinuggur, assuring the King that his uncle not only refused to come to the capital, but was raising a force secretly to oppose his coronation. On this Yoosoof Shah marched against him, and Abdal Khan, collecting his retainers, resolved to die like a soldier; so that on the occasion of meeting with the government troops both himself and his son were killed. After this event, Yoosoof Shah, returning to the capital, buried his father agreeably to the custom of the Sheeas, and he was proclaimed King in his stead. In the course of two or three months Syud Moobarik Khan, Ally Chuk, and others, crossing the Behut, raised the standard of revolt. Yoosoof Shah, with Mahomed Khan his minister, marched to oppose them; and in an action which ensued Mahomed Khan, with sixty of the King's personal guard, were slain, and himself being defeated, fled to Heerpoor, whither he was pursued by Syud Moobarik Khan. Thence the King was compelled to retreat into the woods, to a place called Hurun-pal Nursak, and eventually to the hills, while Syud Moobarik Khan, returning in triumph to Serinuggur, assumed the reins of government. The first act of his administration was to confine his colleague, Ally Chuk; a measure which so enraged those persons who had supported him, that on quitting the court to proceed to their jageers, they resolved to raise Yoosoof again to the throne; but before that could be effected, the Chuks had again disagreed, and having separate interests, they endeavoured to establish Gowhur Chuk on the throne. Syud Moobarik Khan, perplexed with the intrigues by which he was surrounded, wished Yoosoof Shah to resume charge of the government; but the latter having fled from Kashmeer during the late commotion, went direct to the court of Dehly, and laid his petition at the feet of Akbur Padshah. Akbur ordered Raja Man Sing and Syud Yoosoof

A. H. 987.
A. D. 1579.

Khan with a force to re-establish him; for which purpose they marched from Futtehpoor in the year 987.

At this period, Gowhur Chuk being at the head of the government of Kashmeer, Yoosoof Shah thought it advisable to send his son, Yakoob, in advance, in order to gain over some of his former adherents; and, at any rate, by his appearance in the country to create a sensation in his favour among the inhabitants.

When Yoosoof Shah arrived at Seealkote his affairs looked so prosperous that he marched on direct to Rajoory, which district he subdued, and then proceeded to Lassa, where he was met by one Yoosoof Khan, a Kashmeery sent to oppose him, but who joined him with his whole army, and enabled the King to enter his country by the route of Jeehbul. This is the most difficult approach to the valley; notwithstanding which he proceeded direct to the fort of Shewpoor, where he found Gowhur Chuk ready to oppose him, on the opposite bank of the Behut. A severe engagement took place shortly after, when the Kashmeeries were defeated, and Yoosoof Shah entered the city of Serinuggur, where Gowhur Chuk was seized and imprisoned.

Yoosoof Shah, again seated on the throne, restored the several districts of Kashmeer, as before, to his own officers, and concluded the revolution by putting out the eyes of his rival Gowhur Chuk.

A. H. 989.
A. D. 1581. In the year 989, when Akbur Padshah returned from Lahore to Agra, that monarch deputed Mirza Tahir and Mahomed Saleh as envoys to Kashmeer. On their arrival at Baramoola, they were met by Yoosoof Shah in person, who, kissing the letter from Akbur Padshah, placed it on his head. After a short time the ambassadors returned to Dehly, accompanied by the Princes Heidur and Yakoob, the King's sons, to the court of Akbur, where having staid some time they returned to Kashmeer.

A. H. 990.
A. D. 1582. In the year 990, Yoosoof marched in the direction of Lar; during which journey, Shums Chuk, escaping from prison, joined Heidur Chuk, who had fled to Kishtwar; but as they were pursued by the Kash-meer army, they fled further, and Yoosoof returned to Serinuggur.

A. H. 992.
A. D. 1585. In the year 992, the Prince Yakoob, having left Kashmeer, had the honour of again paying his respects to Akbur Padshah; and when that monarch reached Lahore, Yakoob wrote to his father, that Akbur intended to visit Kashmeer; and in the mean time Hukeem Ally Geelany arrived at Lassa, as envoy from his court. Yoosoof Shah met the envoy, put on the honorary robe sent to him, and intended to proceed to court to pay his respects; but Baba Khuleel, Baba Mehdy, and others of the Kash-meer nobles, told Yoosoof Shah that he must not quit the kingdom; and if he insisted upon it, they declared they would proclaim his son Yakoob, lately arrived in Kashmeer, King. The King was thus compelled to forego his intention, and dismissed the ambassador, who reported the whole of the proceedings to his court. Akbur, who had all along intended to conquer Kashmeer, made the conduct of the nobles on this occasion a plea for doing so; and he in consequence deputed Mirza Shahrokh, Shah Ally, and Raja Bhugwundas, with a large force, for that purpose. When the Indian army arrived at the Hoolias pass they found it occupied by Kashmeer troops; and the Indian generals were glad to make terms, requiring only that the King of Kashmeer should pay an annual tribute to Akbur Padshah. On the return of the Dehly troops, Yoosoof Shah accompanied them to the court of Akbur; but the Emperor, by no means satisfied with the terms, refused to ratify the treaty;

A. H. 995.
A. D. 1586.

and in the year 995 he appointed Maho-med Kasim Khan, who held the rank of Ameer-ool-Behr (Admiral), to march and subdue Kashmeer.

Yakoob, who had now succeeded to the throne, in consequence of his father's detention at the court of Dehly, collected an army and occupied the passes; but the treacherous Kashmeeries, as usual, forsook their sovereign, and joined the foreign invaders. Some of the nobles, who were at Serinuggur, also threw off their allegiance, and rebelled. Yakoob, conceiving it advisable to check the insurrection in his own kingdom, before opposing the foreign enemy, returned from the frontier to the capital; and the forces of Akbur entering Kashmeer, proceeded, without opposition, to Seri-nuggur. Officers being now appointed to subdue the several districts, the conquest in a short time was rendered complete. On the successful approach of the Indian army, Yakoob fled to the hills; but collecting a force, he attacked Mahomed Ka-sim Khan, and in one action which took place many Indian chiefs were killed, though the Prince Yakoob was eventually defeated. Not disheartened by this reverse, he again assembled troops, and marched to the gates of Serinuggur, where he was opposed by Mahomed Kasim Khan, whom he defeated, and compelled to seek protection in the citadel of that town, whence Mahomed Ka-sim wrote to his court for assistance. Akbur Padshah having recalled Mahomed Kasim, nominated Syud Yoosoof Khan Mushedy to the government of Kashmeer; and on his approach the Prince Yakoob withdrew his forces from the citadel, and fled to the hills, whither he was pursued for two years; he was at last seized and sent to Dehly, where Akbur enrolled both Yoosoof Shah Chuk and his son Yakoob among the nobles of his government. They each received estates in the fertile province of Behar, and from that period the kingdom of Kashmeer has been a province of Dehly; before which, for upwards of one thousand years that principality had been independent, and was never subdued by any of the monarchs of Hin-doostan.

ALL the materials of the history of the Mahome-dans of the Malabar coast that I have been able to collect are derived from the Tohfut-ool-Mujahi-deen; from which we learn that the province of Malabar is situated on the southern part of the peninsula of India, and that the Hindoo princes of that country previously to the reign of Ramraj ^531a paid tribute, and acknowledged fealty, to the rays of Beejanuggur and the Carnatic.

Anterior to the propagation of the Mahomedan faith, the Christians and Jews had established themselves as merchants in that country; till at length, during the reign of a prince called Samiry†, ^531b some vessels from Arabia having Mahomedans on board, going on a pilgrimage to the footsteps of Adam, on the island of Selandeep (Ceylon), which is also called Lunka, were driven into the port of Cranganore, where the Samiry raja resided. This prince received the strangers with hospitality, and was so pleased with the society of some holy men who were among the pilgrims, that having enquired respecting the Mahomedan faith, he became a convert; and leaving his kingdom, went to Mecca, and died in one of the ports of the Red Sea. Before his death, he wrote to his representative in Malabar to receive the Mahomedans in future with hospitality, and permit them to settle and build musjids. This communication was written in the language of Malabar, whose ruler henceforward assumed the title of Samiry.

In consequence of this letter the Mahomedans were treated with kindness by the reigning prince, who wrote to the governors of his districts in these words: — “Whereas Mullik, the son of Hu-“beeb, and certain other Mahomedans, have come “to visit this our country, and intend residing “among us, it is our royal order, agreeably to “the imperial command of the late Samiry, that “wherever the said Mullik or any of his tribe “wish to reside, ground shall be allotted to “them, in order to build either habitations or “places of worship.” Mullik first settled at Cran-ganore, where he built a musjid, and cultivated some garden land; afterwards, having gone farther into the country, he established a colony of Ma-homedans in the town of Quilon. Thence he went to Hurryputtun, Daraputtun, Mundra, Jay-Fak-noor, Mangalore, and Kalinjurkote; ^532a in each of which towns he built musjids, and established Moollas to preach the true faith; and as the Ma-homedans in Malabar are mostly of the Shafay ^533a persuasion, I conclude that Mullik, the son of Hubeeb, was also of the same faith. From this period, the Mahomedans extended their religion and their influence in Malabar; and many of the princes and inhabitants becoming converts to the true faith, gave over the management of some of the sea-ports to the strangers, whom they called Nowayits (literally, the New Race). The rajas of the ports of Goa, Dabul, and Choul, were the first who gave them this appellation, and encouraged emigration from Arabia; and though their elevation to public offices gave umbrage to the Christians and Jews†, ^533b who became their determined enemies; yet, as the countries of Deccan and Guzerat were gradually brought under Mahomedan subjection, their enemies were unable to do these Arabian settlers any material injury, until the tenth century of the Hijra, when in the decline of the Ma-homedan empire of Dehly the Portuguese invaded India.

A. H. 904.
A. D. 1498. In the year 904, four vessels belonging to the King of Portugal arrived at the ports of Calicut ^534a and Koilad; when, having made observations on the nature of the country and its inhabitants, they returned to

A. H. 905.
A. D. 1499.

Portugal. On the following year six vessels arrived; and the Portuguese endeavoured to persuade the Raja of Cali-cut to shut his ports against the traders from Arabia, telling him that by such a measure the Indians would gain more advantage than by carrying on a small traffic annually by the Red Sea; but Samiry not consenting to this proposal, the Portuguese declared war against the Arabs, and attacked their vessels; which so incensed the Raja, that he ordered several of the Portuguese then on shore to be attacked, and seventy were killed. The rest made their escape to their ships, and took refuge with the Raja of Cochin, an enemy of Sa-miry. The Cochin chief permitted the Portuguese to build a fortified factory at that place; they also destroyed a mosque, and built a chapel in its stead, which was the first building erected by Europeans in India. From Cochin they sailed to Cananore, where they also made friends with the Raja; and having built a fort, established a factory there; and while they transported pepper and ginger to Europe, they prevented any other vessels from doing so also.

Samiry, hearing of these proceedings, attacked the Raja of Cochin; and having killed three petty rajas in action, and taken their country, he returned to his capital: but the heirs of those slain, collecting a large force, retook their countries, and the rajas of Cochin and Cananore continued to support and befriend the Portuguese. Samiry, a thousand times more incensed than ever, distributed largesses to his troops, and marched to Cochin; but finding the Portuguese had sailed and left the place, he returned to his capital, and immediately despatched ambassadors to Judda, in the Red Sea, to the Deccan, and to Guzerat; informing the respective sovereigns of those countries, that the Portuguese had behaved in the most cruel manner to his Mahomedan subjects, and that he was unable to withstand their forces. He states: — “I am “not apprehensive for my own country, but for “my Mahomedan subjects; for, although myself “a Hindoo, I conceive it my duty to protect them “as if they were also of the same persuasion. But “the King of Portugal is wealthier than I; and as “I find that by destroying these invaders they “increase their numbers on the following year, I “am reduced to solicit the assistance of the Maho-“medan kings; so that I entreat you, by the value “you place on your religion, to send your ships “filled with victorious troops into these seas, to “attack the Europeans, and entitle yourselves to “have your names enrolled in the list of holy “warriors, who in supporting the cause of religion “have become inhabitants of paradise.”^535a

Munsoor Ghoory, the Caliph of Egypt, accordingly deputed his admiral, Ameer Hoossein, with thirteen ships of war, to proceed to the Indian coasts. Mahmood Shah of Guzerat, and Mahmood Shah Bahmuny of the Deccan, also sent ships from Diù, Surat, Gogo, Dabul, and Choul, which all met at the island of Diù; from whence the combined fleets proceeded, under the command of Mul-lik Eiaz Sooltany, the Guzerat admiral, and Ameer Hoossein, the admiral from Egypt, to the south. This armament fell in with the Portuguese off the port of Choul, where an engagement took place, in which some Arab vessels fell into the hands of the Portuguese, and the Mahomedan fleet was dispersed, after which the Portuguese returned to their own ports. At this period an army from Constantinople arriving in Egypt, the Ghoory dynasty became subservient to the Turkish government of Europe. Samiry, hearing this news, was much dejected, despairing of subduing the Portuguese, who every day became more and more powerful.

A. H. 915.
A. D. 1509.

During the absence of Samiry, in the year 915, from Calicut, the Portuguese landed and plundered the town, and burned the principal mosque; but on the following day, the inhabitants rising on the invaders, five hundred Portuguese were killed, and many drowned in endeavouring to reach their boats. Notwithstanding this circumstance, they obtained a grant of land from a neighbouriug zemindar, on which they built a fort within three miles of Calicut. It has been before related in the Deccan history, that during the same year they attacked and took by storm the fort of Goa, which was, however, shortly after retaken by stratagem; but they subsequently became possessed of it again by bribing the governor with large presents; since which period Goa has been considered the principal Portuguese settlement in India, and a governor-general is appointed from Europe.

Samiry, finding all his efforts against the Portuguese of no avail, was reduced to such a state of despair, that being taken seriously ill, he

A. H. 921.
A. D. 1515.

died of a broken heart in the year 921, when he was succeeded by his brother, who shortly after his accession made peace with the Portuguese. In this treaty the latter were authorised to build a factory at Calicut, and to trade without molestation, on condition of permitting four ships laden with pepper and ginger to sail annually to the Arabian coast. The Portuguese immediately built a fortified factory; and after establishing themselves, not only refused to allow the transport of the pepper and ginger to take place agreeably to compact, but persecuted the Mahomedans, on all occasions, with great cruelty. The Jews, also, who resided at Cranganore, taking advantage of the weakness of the Samiry government, following the example of the Portuguese, put to death many of the Mahomedans in that town and its vicinity. Samiry, repenting of having come to any terms with these Europeans, and seeing that their example had induced the Jews to commit these outrages, marched with a force to Cranga-nore, and succeeded in expelling all the Jews from every part of his country; after which, calling upon the Mahomedans in Malabar to join his standard, he proceeded to attack the Portuguese factory at Calicut, which he stormed, and took by assault; and he was enabled to despatch the four Arab vessels laden with pepper and ginger.

The Portuguese, however, resolved to have a factory near the town of Calicut, for two reasons: in the first place, on account of its great trade; and, secondly, because their factory being contiguous to that port, they could blockade it, and entirely monopolise the export of pepper and ginger. In spite of remonstrance, therefore, in the

A. H. 938.
A. D. 1531.

year 938 they built a fort at the port of Jaliat, seven miles distant from Calicut, and also the fort of Reevadunda, near Choul.

A. H. 941.
A. D. 1534. In the year 941 they took possession of the ports of Swally and Daman, and of the island of Diù, in Guzerat, from Bahadur Shah, as has been already related in the history

A. H. 943.
A. D. 1536.

of that monarch; and in the year 943 they attacked the town of Cranganore, and built a fort, notwithstanding the efforts of Samiry to prevent it. At this time, Sooliman, the Grand Signior of Constantinople, resolved, if possible, to deprive the Portuguese of the trade to India, and to attack their factories, after which he proposed to conquer the empire of Hindoo-stan. For this purpose he appointed his vizier, Sooliman Aga, to the command of an armament, consisting of upwards of one hundred vessels, which

A. H. 944.
A. D. 1537.

sailed from the Red Sea in the year 944. Sooliman Aga first attacked and took the port of Adun, which lies at the mouth of the Red Sea, whence he sailed towards the island of Diù, in Guzerat; but finding, on his arrival, that his treasury was low, and his provisions nearly exhausted, he was compelled, after a few days, to return, without accomplishing his purpose.

A. H. 963.
A. D. 1555. Before the year 963 we find that other nations of Europe had sent vessels to India, and settled in the several ports and islands of the East. They built factories at Pûlicat, Mylapoor, Negapatam, Madras, Barcelore, Mangalore, and in Bengal. They also settled on the islands of Sumatra, Malacca, Timoor, and Ceylon, and even established factories on the coast of China; but Sooltan Ally Akhy attacked the Europeans on the island of Sumatra, and drove them from their factory, as did also the King of Ceylon. Samiry, the King of Calicut, being much oppressed by the Portuguese, sent ambassadors to the Mahomedan kings of Beejapoor and the Deccan, requesting their assistance.

A. H. 979.
A. D. 1571. In the year 979, the Deccan and Beejapoor monarchs marched against Reevadunda and Goa, while Samiry attacked and captured the fort of Jaliat; but the Mahomedan kings were compelled to raise the sieges both of Reevadunda and Goa, and return to their respective capitals. The Portuguese now became more and more exasperated against the Mahomedans; and having the entire command of the seas, they plundered several ships (belonging to Akbur Padshah of Dehly) returning from Judda in the Red Sea, whither they had conveyed pilgrims to the holy shrine at Mecca. They also landed and burned the towns of Adilabad and Carapatam, on the shore of the Beejapoor empire, and went to Dabul for the same purpose; but the governor, Khwaja Ally Shirazy, having heard of their intentions, permitted them to land, and put to death upwards of a hundred and fifty Portuguese. From the time the vessels belonging to Akbur Padshah were taken, that monarch laid an embargo on all his ships sailing either to the Red Sea or to the Gulf of Persia, as heretofore, conceiving that to obtain passes from the Europeans would be derogatory to his dignity; and the ships being plundered incurred both disgrace to the King and loss to his subjects. Some of the governors on the seacoast, however, such as Abdool Raheem of Surat, and others, obtaining passes for their vessels, still

A. H. 1020.
A. D. 1611.

continued to trade. In the year 1020, the Emperor of Dehly, Jehangeer, the son of Akbur Padshah, granted a spot for the English to build a factory in the city of Surat, in the province of Guzerat, which is the first settlement that people made on the shores of Hin-doostan. The persuasion of this nation is different from that of other Europeans, particularly the Portuguese, with whom they are in a state of constant warfare. They assert that Jesus was a mortal, and the Prophet of God; that there is only one God; and that he is without equal, and has no wife, nor son, according to the belief of the Portuguese. The English have a separate king, independent of the King of Portugal, to whom they owe no allegiance; but on the contrary, these two nations put each other to death wheresoever they meet. At present, in consequence of the interference of Jehangeer Padshah, they are at peace with each other, though God only knows how long they will consent both to have factories in the same town, and to live on terms of amity and friendship.