A'in-i Akbarī - The Ain-i-Akbarī, Volume 2

It is situated in the first, second and third climates simultaneously. Before Tattah was comprised in this province, its length from Fírózpúr to Sewistán, was 403 kós and its breadth from Khatpur¹ to Jaisalmír, 108 kós, but since its inclusion, it measures to Khach (Gandává) and Mekrán, 660 kós. On the east, it marches with the Sarkár of Sirhind; on the north with Shór; on the south, with the Súbah of Ajmer, and on the west, with Khach and Mekrán. For facility of reference, the two territories are separately described. Its principal rivers are the six already mentioned. The Bihat (Jhelum) joins the Chenáb near the parganah of Shór and after a course of 27 kós, they unite with the Ravi at Zafarpúr and the three flowing collectively in one stream for 60 kós, enter the Indus near U´ch. Within 12 kos of Fírózpúr, the Biáh joins the Sutlej which then bears several names, viz., Har, Hári, Danḍ, Núrni,² and in the neighbourhood of Multán, confluent with the former four, their accumulated waters unite. Every river that discharges itself into the Indus takes its name of Sindh. In Tattah, they call it Mihrán.¹

To the north are the mountains. Its climate is similar to that of Lahor which it resembles in many aspects, but in Multán, the rainfall is less and the heat excessive.

Multán is one of the oldest cities of India: Long. 107° 35'; Lat. 29° 52'². It has a brick fort and a lofty minaret adds to its beauty. Shaikh Baháu'ddín Zakaríyá and many other saints here repose.

Bhakkar (Bhukkur) is a notable fortress; in ancient chronicles it is called Manṣúrah.³ The six rivers united roll beneath it, one channel passing the southern face of the fort, the other the northern. The rainfall is inconsiderable, the fruits excellent.

Between Siwi¹ and Bhakkar is a vast desert, over which for three months of the hot season the simoom blows.

The river Sind (Indus) inclines every few years alternately to its southern and northern banks and the village cultivation follows its course. For this reason the houses are constructed of wood and grass.

This Súbah comprises three Sarkárs of 88 parganahs, all under assessment for crops paying special rates. The measured land is 3,273,932 bighas, 4 biswas. The gross revenue is 15 krors, 14 lakhs, 3,619 dáms. (Rs. 378,590-8-0), of which 30 lakhs, 59,948 dáms (Rs. 76,498-11-2), are Suyúrghál. The local Militia consists of 18,785 Cavalry and 165,650 Infantry.

Containing 47 Mahals, 558,649 Bíghas, 4 Biswas. Revenue, 53,916,318 Dáms. Suyúrghál, 5,494,236 Dáms. Cavalry, 8,965. Infantry, 90,650.

Containing 9 Mahals, 52,090 Bíghas. Revenue, 17,240,147 Dáms. Cavalry, 1,410. Infantry, 17,100.

Containing 11 Mahals, 137,629 Bíghas, 13 Bíswas. Revenue, 9,863,341 Dáms. Suyúrghál, 207,382 Dáms. Cavalry, 775. Infantry, 14,550.

Containing 6 Mahals, 83,229 Bíghas, 18 Bíswas. Revenue, 5,113,883 Dáms. Cavalry, 770. Infantry, 9,500.

Containing 4 Mahals, 34,812 Bíghas. Revenue, 2,178,192 Dams. Suyurghál, 13,399 Dáms. Cavalry, 220. Infantry, 2,000.

Containing 17 Mahals,² 205,893 Bíghás, 13 Biswas. Revenue, 18,820,255 Dáms. Suyúrghal, 38,688 Dáms. Cavalry, 5,800. Infantry, 57,600.

Containing 29 Mahals, 1,433,767 Bíghas, 8 Biswas. Revenue, 129,334,153 Dáms. Suyúrghál, 2,079,170 Dáms. Cavalry, 5,210. Infantry, 53,300.

Containing 10 Mahals, 710,946 Bíghas, 10 Biswas. Revenue, 88,808,855 Dáms. Suyúrghál, 1,481,564 Dáms. Castes, various. Cavalry, 2,400. Infantry, 20,400.

Containing 6 Mahals, 193,495 Bíghas, 9 Biswas. Revenue, 1,175,393 Dáms. Castes, various. Cavalry, 1,100. Infantry, 14,000.

Containing 7 Mahals, 142,856 Bíghas, 2 Biswas. Revenue, 8,534,915 Dáms. Suyúrghál, 5,808 Dáms. Castes, various. Cavalry, 710. Infantry, 6,300.

Containing 6 Mahals, 386,470 Bíghas, 7 Biswas. Revenue, 20,580,771 Dáms. Suyúrghál, 549,972 Dáms. Cavalry, 1,000. Infantry, 12,300.

Containing 12 Mahals, 282,013 Bíghas. Revenue, 18,424,947 Dáms. Suyúrghál, 600,419 Dáms. Cavalry, 4,600. Infantry, 11,100.

At one period the province was subject to the sovereigns of Delhi: at another it was under the control of the rulers of Sind, and for a time was held by the princes of Ghazni. After its conquest by Mụizzu'ddín Sám (Ghori), it continued to pay tribute to Delhi. In the year A. H. 847 (A. D. 1443) when Sulṭán Aláu'ddín reigned at Delhi, and constituted authority fell into contempt, every chief in possession of power, set up a pretension to independence. A noisy faction raised Shaikh Yúsuf Ḳuraishi, a disciple of Shaikh Baháu'ddín Zakaríya, to supremacy. He was subsequently deposed and proceeded with haste to the court of Sulṭán Bahlól at Delhi. The sovereignty now devolved upon one of the Langáh family, who assumed the title of Sulṭán Maḥmúd Sháh. It is related that this chief had given his daughter in marriage to Shaikh Yúsuf, and on the strength of this connection, used frequently to visit her alone, till one night by a successful intrigue he accomplished his design on the throne. During the reign of Sulṭán Ḳuṭbu'ddín, Sulṭán Maḥmúd Khilji advanced from Málwah against Multán but returned without effecting anything. Some maintain that the first of the Langáh family who was raised to the throne was Ḳuṭbu'ddín. In the reign of Sulṭán Husain, Bahlól sent (his son) Barbak Sháh with a force to reinstate Shaikh Yúsuf, but they returned unsuccessful. Sulṭán Ḥusain becoming old and doting, placed his eldest son upon the throne under the title of Firóz Sháh, and withdrew into retirement. His Wazír Imadu'l Mulk, poisoned him in revenge for the murder of his own son and Sulṭán Ḥusain a second time resumed the sceptre and appointed Maḥmúd Khán, son of Sulṭán Firóz, his heir. On the death of Sulṭán Ḥusain, after a reign of 30 or 34 years,¹ Sulṭán Maḥmúd ascended the throne. During his reign several incursions were made by the Mughals who, however, retired discomfited. Some malicious intriguers through jealousy created a misunderstanding between the Sulṭán and Jám Bayazíd who had long held the office of prime minister, and misrepresentations cunningly made in a roundabout way, brought them into open conflict. The minister withdrew from Multán to Shór and read the khuṭbah in the name of Sulṭán Sikandar Lódi. On the death of Sulṭán Maḥmúd, his infant son was raised to the throne as Sulṭán Ḥusain (II). Mírzá Sháh Ḥusain (Arghún) marched from Tattah and took Multán and entrusted its charge to Langar Khán. Mírzá Kámrán dispossessed him of it and after him Shér Khán, Salím Khán and Sikandar successively held it till the splendour of Humayún's equal administration filled Hindustán with its brightness and secured its peace. At the present day under the just sway of His Majesty his subjects find there an undisturbed repose.

During a long period this was an independent territory but now forms part of the imperial dominions. Its length from Bhakkar to Kach and Mekrán is 257 kós, its breadth from the town of Budín to Bandar Láhari,¹ 100 kós, and again from the town of Chándo one of the dependencies of Bhakkar, to Bikanér is 60 kós. On the east lies Gujarát: to the north Bhakkar and Séwi:² to the south, the ocean, and to the west Kach and Mekrán. It is situated in the second climate and lies in Longitude 102° 30'; Lat. 24° 10'.³

The ancient capital was Bráhmanábád,⁴ a large city. Its citadel had 1,400 towers, at an interval of a tanáb,⁵ and to this day there are many traces of its fortifications. Alor¹ next became the metropolis and at the present day it is Tattah, also called Debal. The mountains to the north form several branches. One of them trends towards Ḳandahár, and another rising from the sea coast extends to the town of Kohbár, called Rámgar, and terminates in Sewistán and is there known as Lakkhi.² This tract is inhabited by an important Baloch tribe called Kalmáni,³ consisting of twenty thousand cavalry. A fine breed of camels is here indigenous. A third range runs from Séhwán to Séwi and is called Khattar⁴ where dwells a tribe named Nohmardi that can raise a force of 300 horse and 7,000 foot. Below this tribe, there is another clan of the Baloch known as Naẓhari with a force of a thousand men. A good breed of horses comes from this tract. A fourth mountain chain touches Kach (Gandává) on one side, and on the other the Kalmáni territory, and is called Kárah inhabited by 4,000 Balochis.

In the winter season there is no need of poshtins (fur-lined coats) and the summer heats are moderate except in Sewistán. Fruits are of various kinds and mangoes are especially fine. In the desert tracts, a small kind of melon grows wild. Flowers are plentiful and camels are numerous and of a good breed. The means of locomotion is by boats of which there are many kinds, large and small, to the number of 40,000. The wild ass is hunted, and game, such as, hares, the kotah páchah¹ and wild boars; fishing likewise is much pursued.

The assessment of the country is made on the system of division of crops,² a third being taken from the husbandman. Here are salt-pits and iron mines. Sháli rice is abundant and of good quality. Six kós from Tattah is a mine of yellow stone, large and small slabs of which are quarried and used for building. The staple food consists of rice and fish. The latter is smoked and loaded in boats, and exported to the ports and other cities, affording a considerable profit. Fish-oil is also extracted and used in boat building. There is a kind of fish called palwah which comes up into the Indus from the sea, unrivalled for its fine and exquisite flavour. Milk-curds of excellent quality are made and keep for four months.

Near Sehwán is a large lake, two days' journey in length called Manchúr, in which artificial islands have been made by fishermen who dwell on them.

But the greatest of all wonders is the Liver-Eater (Jigar Khwár), an individual who by glances and incantations can abstract a man's liver. Some aver that under certain conditions and at certain times, he renders the person senseless upon whom he looks, and then takes from him what resembles the seed of a pomegranate, which he conceals for a time in the calf of his leg. During this interval the person whose liver is stolen remains unconscious, and when thus helpless, the other throws the seed on the fire which spreads out like a plate. Of this he partakes with his fellows and the unconscious victim dies. He can convey a knowledge of his art to whomsoever he wills, by giving him a portion of this food to eat and teaching him the incantation. ?? he is caught in the act and his calf be cut ?? and the seed extracted and given to his victim, the latter will recover. The followers of this art are mostly women.

They can convey intelligence from long distances in a brief space of time and if they be thrown into the river with a stone tied to them, they will not sink. When it is desired to deprive one of these of this power, they brand both sides of his head and his joints, fill his eyes with salt, suspend him for forty days in a subterraneous chamber, and give him food without salt, and some of them recite incantations over him. During this period he is called Dhachrah. Although his power then no longer exists, he is still able to recognize a Liver-Eater, and these pests are captured through his detection. He can also restore people to health by incantation or administering a certain drug. Extraordinary tales are told of these people that are beyond measure astonishing.

This country is the fourth Sarkár of the Súbah of Multán. From the confines of Uch to Tattah towards the north are rocky mountain ranges inhabited by various Baloch tribes, and on the south from Uch to Gujarát are sandhills in which region are the Ahshám bhatti¹ and other numerous clans. From Bhakkar to Naṣírpúr and Umarkóṭ are the Sodah, Járejah and other tribes. This Súbah contains 5 Sarkárs subdivided into 53 parganahs. The revenue is 6,615,393² dáms. (Rs. 165,383-13-2.)

1. The family of Tamím Anṣári during the ascendancy of the House of Umayyah.

2. The Sumra (Rájpút) line of 36 princes, reigned 500 years, (according to Ferishta—100—their names unrecorded).

3. Of the Samma dynasty.

In former times, there lived a Rájá named Siharas¹ whose capital was Alór. His sway extended eastwards, as far as Kashmír and towards the west to Mekrán, while the sea confined it on the south and the mountains on the north. An invading army entered the country from Persia, in opposing which the Rájá lost his life. The invaders contenting themselves with devastating part of the territory, returned. Ráe Sáhi, the Rájá's son, succeeded his father, by whose enlightened wisdom and the aid of his intelligent minister Rám, justice was universally administered and the repose of the country secured. A Bráhman named Jach² of an obscure station in life, attached himself to the minister's service and by flattery and address made himself of much consequence and was advanced to a post of dignity, and on the death of the minister, was chosen to succeed him. He basely and dishonourably carried on an intrigue with the Rájá's wife, which the Rájá, notwithstanding its disclosure to him by the ministers of State, refused to credit. During the Rájá's illness, the wicked wretch, in collusion with this shameless paramour, sent for the generals of the army separately, on pretence of consulting them and set them apart, and by seductive promises won over the several enemies of each to accomplish their death. When they were put out of the way and the Rájá too had breathed his last, he assumed the sovereignty.

The pursuers of worldly interests attached themselves to his cause and he took the Ráni to wife, thus garnering eternal pordition, but he laboured for the prosperity and increase of his dominions and seized upon Kach (Gandává), and Mekrán.

During the Caliphate of Omar (b. u'l) Khaṭṭab, Mughírah Abu'l Aáṣ¹ advanced by way of Bahrain to Debal, but the troops there opposed him and he was killed in the engagement. In the Caliphate of Othmán an intelligent explorer² was sent to ascertain the condition of Sind, and an army of invasion was under orders. The messenger, however, reported that if a large force were sent, supplies would fail, and a small one would effect nothing and he added many dissuasive representations. The Prince of the Faithful, Ali, despatched troops that occupied the borders of Debal but on hearing of the death of the Caliph they withdrew in haste to Mekrán. Muáwiyah twice despatched an army to Sind and on both occasions many of the troops perished.

Chach died after a prosperous reign of 40 years, and his youngest son Dáhir succeeded him on the throne. In the caliphate of Walíd. b. Abdu'l Malik, when Hajjáj was governor of Iráḳ, he despatched on his own authority Muḥammad Ḳásim his cousin and son-in-law to Sind who fought Dáhir in several engagements.³ On Thnrsday the 10th of Ramazán A. H. 99, (17th April 717) the Rájá was killed in action and the territory of Tattah became subject to the invaders. The two daughters of Rájá Dáhir, who had been made captive were sent with some valuable presents to the Caliph. In a spirit of revenge, they deceitfully represented to the Caliph that Muḥammad Ḳásim had dishonoured them. He therefore abstained from visiting them, and in a fit of fury gave orders that Ḳásim should be stuffed into a raw hide and despatched to his presence. The commands of the Caliph reached him when he was about to march against Hari Chand, king of Kanauj, and he obediently submitted to them. When he was thus carried to the court, the Caliph exhibited the spectacle to the two princesses who expressed their gratification in viewing the slayer of their father in this condition. This decision of the Caliph excites astonishment inasmuch as it was pronounced without deliberate investigation. It is the duty of just princes not to be swayed by the representation of any one individual, but to be circumspect in their inquiries, since truth is rare and falsehood prevalent, and more especially in regard to the recipients of their favour, towards whom the world burns with envy without just cause of resentment. Against the outwardly plausible and inwardly vicious they should be particularly on their guard, for many are the wicked and factious who speciously impose by their affected merit and by their misrepresentations bring ruin on the innocent.

After Muḥammad Ḳásim's death, the sovereignty of this country devolved on the descendants of the Banu Tamím Anṣári.¹ They were succeeded by the Súmrah race who established their rule and were followed by the Sammas who asserted their descent from Jamshíd, and each of them assumed the name of Jám. In the reign of Jám Bánhatiyah² Sulṭán Fíróz Sháh on three occasions led an army from Delhi against that prince, and obtained some conspicuous successes. On the third occasion, he took him prisoner and carried him to Delhi, leaving Sind under charge of his own officials. Subsequently being satisfied with his good will and capacity he reinstated him in his government. On the death of Jám Tughlak, the chamberlain Mubárak succeeded him through the efforts of a vain and seditious faction, and was followed by Sikandar the son of Jám Fatḥ Khán.

During the reign of Jám Nandá, Sháh Beg Arghún made a descent from Ḳandahár and took Séwi and leaving the command of it to his brother Sulṭán Muḥammad, returned to Ḳandahár. The Jám marched a force against Muḥammad who was killed in action. Sháh Beg made a second incursion and took possession of Sehwán and a considerable part of Sind and leaving his conquests in charge of his own people, withdrew.

In the reign of Jám Fíróz, a relative of his named Ṣaláḥu'ddín rose in rebellion and failing in his attempt, took refuge with Sulṭán Maḥmúd of Gujarát who received him graciously and assisted him with an army; Daryá Khán the prime minister of Jám Fíróz espoused his cause and the kingdom of Sind fell under his power without a blow. Subsequently the said Daryá Khán determined to restore Jám Fíróz who had withdrawn into private life, but who thus recovered his kingdom. Ṣaláḥu'ddín a second time advanced from Gujarát with a force furnished by the Sulṭán and occupied Sind. Fíróz retired to Ḳandahár and Sháh Beg supplied him with troops, and an engagement took place near Sehwán in which Ṣaláḥu'ddín and his son were slain. Thus Fíróz was again established in his kingdom. In the year A. H. 929¹ (A. D. 1522-3) Sháh Beg took possession of Sind and Jám Fíróz retired to Gujarát, gave his daughter in marriage to Sulṭán Bahádur and was attached to the Court in the ranks of its nobles. Sind was now subject to Sháh Beg. This prince was the son of Mír Zu'n Nún Beg, the commander-in-chief of Sulṭán Husain Mirzá,² who received the government of Ḳandahár. He fell fighting bravely against Shaibak Khán Uzbek who was engaged in hostilities with the sons of Sulṭán Husain Mirzá. His eldest son succeeded to the government of Ḳandahár, a prince of distinguished valour and versed in the learning of his age. At his death, his son Sháh Ḥusain ascended the throne and wrested Multán from Sulṭán Maḥmúd. After him Mirzá Isá son of Abdu'l Ali Tarkhán³ succeeded, followed by Muḥammad Payandah¹ but this prince being subject to fits of mental estrangement, did not personally administer the government. Mirzá Jáni Beg, his son assumed the direction of affairs till His Majesty's victorious troops advanced into the country and reduced it to order, and Mirzá Jáni Beg was enrolled in the ranks of his nobility.

It is situated in the third and fourth climates, and comprises Kashmír, Pakli, Bimbar, Swát, Bajaur, Ḳandahár and Zábulistán. Its capital was formerly Ghaznah, but now Kábul.

It lies in the third and fourth climates. Its length from Ḳambar Ver to Kishan Ganga is 120 kós, and its breadth from 10 to 25 kós. On the east are Paristán and the river Chenáb: on the south-east Bánihál and the Jammú mountains: on the north-east, Great Tibet: on the west, Pakli and the Kishen Ganga river: on the south-west, the Gakkhar country: on the north-west, Little Tibet. It is encompassed on all sides by the Himalayan ranges. Twenty-six different roads lead into Hindustán but those by Bhimbhar² and Pakli are the best and are generally practicable on horseback. The first mentioned is the nearest and it has several routes of which three are good, viz., (1) Hasti Bhanj³ which was the former route for the march of troops; (2) Pir Panjál,¹ which His Majesty has thrice traversed on his way to the rose garden of Kashmír. If on these hills an ox or a horse be killed, storm clouds and wind arise with a fall of snow and rain; (3) Tangtalah.

The country is enchanting, and might be fittingly called a garden of perpetual spring surrounding a citadel terraced to the skies, and deservedly appropriate to be either the delight of the worldling or the retired abode of the recluse. Its streams are sweet to the taste, its waterfalls music to the ear, and its climate is invigorating. The rain and snowfall are similar to that of Turkestán and Persia and its periodical rains occur at the same season as in Hindustán. The lands are artificially watered² or dependent on rain for irrigation. The flowers are enchanting fill the heart with delight. Violets, the red rose and wild narcissus cover the plains. To enumerate its flora would be impossible. Its spring and autumn are extremely beautiful. The houses are all of wood and are of four stories and some of more, but it is not the custom to enclose them. Tulips¹ are grown on the roofs which present a lovely sight in the spring time. Cattle and sundry stores are kept in the lower storey, the second contains the family apartments, and in the third and fourth are the household chattels. On account of the abundance of wood and the constant earthquakes, houses of stone and brick are not built, but the ancient temples inspire astonishment. At the present day many of them are in ruins. Woollen fabrics are made in high perfection, especially shawls which are sent as valuable gifts to every clime. But the bane of this country is its people² yet strange to say, notwithstanding its numerous population and the scantiness of the means of subsistence, thieving and begging are rare. Besides plums and mulberries, the fruits are numerous. Melons, apples, peaches, apricots are excellent. Although grapes are in plenty, the finer qualities are rare and the vines bear on mulberry trees. The mulberry is little eaten, its leaves being reserved for the silkworm. The eggs are brought from Gilgit and Little Tibet, in the former of which they are procured in greater abundance and are more choice. The food of the people is chiefly rice, wine, fish and various vegetables, and the last mentioned they dry and preserve. Rice is cooked and kept over night to be eaten. Though sháli rice is plentiful, the finest quality is not obtainable. Wheat is small in grain and black in colour, and there is little of it, and¹ little consumed. Gram² and barley are nowhere found. They have a species of sheep³ which they call Hándú delicate and sweet in flavour and wholesome. Apparel is generally of wool, a coat of which will last for some years. The horses are small, strong, and traverse difficult ground. There are neither elephants nor camels. The cows are black and ill-shaped, but give excellent milk and butter. There are artificers of various kinds who might be deservedly employed in the greatest cities. The bazár system is little in use, as a brisk traffic is carried on at their own places of business. Snakes, scorpions and other venomous reptiles are not found in the cities. There is a mountain called Mahádeva and in any spot whence its summit can be seen, no snake exists, but fleas,¹ lice, gnats and flies are very common. From the general use of pellet-bows which are fitted with bow-strings, sparrows are very scarce. The people take their pleasure in skiffs upon the lakes, and their hawks strike the wild-fowl in mid-air and bring them to the boats, and sometimes they hold them down in the water in their talons, and stand on them, presenting an exciting spectacle.

Stags and partridges likewise afford sport and the leopard too is tracked. The carriage of goods is effected by boat, but men also carry great loads over the most difficult country. Boatmen and carpenters drive a thriving trade. The Bráhman class is very numerous.

Although Kashmír has a dialect² of its own, their learned books are in the Sanskrit language. They have a separate character which they use for manuscript work, and they write chiefly on Túz which is the bark of a tree,³ worked into sheets with some rude art and which keeps for years. All their ancient documents are written on this. Their ink is so prepared as to be indelible by washing. Although, in ancient times, the learning of the Hindús was in vogue, at the present day, various sciences are studied and their knowledge is of a more general character. Their astrological art and astronomy are after the manner of the Hindús. The majority of the narrow-minded conservatives of blind tradition are Sunnis, and there are some Imámis and Núr Bakshis,¹ all perpetually at strife with each other. These are chiefly from Persia and Turkestán. Their musicians are exceeding many and all equally monotonous, and with each note they seem to dig their nails into your liver. The most respectable class in this country is that of the Bráhmans, who notwithstanding their need of freedom from the bonds of tradition and custom, are true worshippers of God.

They do not loosen the tongue of calumny against those not of their faith, nor beg nor importune. They employ themselves in planting fruit trees, and are generally a source of benefit to the people. They abstain from flesh-meat and do not marry. There are about two thousand of this class.

The Tolah¹ in this country is 16 máshas, each mashá being equal to 6 surkhs. The gold mohur weighs 16 dánis, each dáni equalling 6 surkhs, being 4 surkhs more than the ordinary mohurs of Delhi. Rop Sásnú² is a silver coin of 9 máshas. The panchhu is of copper, equal to the fourth of a dám and is called kasérah. One-fourth of this is the bahgagni, of which again one-fourth is called shakri.

equal to one thousand dáms.

The whole country is regarded as holy ground by the Hindú sages. Forty-five shrines are dedicated to Mahadeva, sixty-four to Vishnu, three to Brahmá, and twenty-two to Durga. In seven hundred places there are graven images of snakes which they worship and regarding which wonderful legends are told.³

Srinagar is the capital and is 4 farsakhs in length. The rivers Bihat, Már, and Lachmahkul¹ flow through it. The last-mentioned runs occasionally dry: the second, at times, becomes so shallow that boats cannot pass. This has been a flourishing city from ancient times² and the home of artificers of various kinds. Beautiful shawls are woven, and they manufacture woollen stuffs³ extremely soft. Durmah, paṭṭú and other woollen materials are prepared but the best are brought from Tibet. Mír Sayyid Ali Hamadáni⁴ resided for some time in this city, and a monastery founded by him still preserves his memory. To the east is a high hill known as the Koh i Sulaimán, and adjoining the city are two large lakes always full of water, and it is remarkable that their water will not deteriorate in good savour and wholesomeness for any length of time provided that their free exit is undisturbed.

Near the town of Brang is a long defile in which is a pool seven yards square and as deep as a man's stature. It is regarded as a place of great sanctity. Strange to say it is dry during eleven months, but in the Divine month of Urdi-bihisht (April), water bubbles forth from two springs. First in one corner of it is a cavity like a mortar called Sendh brári: when this becomes full, the spring rises in another corner called Sat ríshí. From these two sources the pool runs over. Sometimes it boils up for three hours, and at times for only a second. Then it begins to decrease till not a drop remains. At three periods of the day, viz., morning, noon and evening, this rise occurs. Various flowers are thrown in as offerings to either spring, and after the reflux of the water, the flowers of each votary are found in their respective springs.¹

But this, like the divining cup is a contrivance of the ancients to secure the devotion of the simple.

In this vicinity also is a spring, which during six months is dry. On a stated day, the peasants flock to worship and make appropriatory offerings of a sheep or a goat. Water then flows forth and irrigates the cultivation of five villages. If the flush is in excess, they resort to the same supplications, and the stream subsides of its own accord. There is also another spring called Kokar Nág, the water of which is limpid, cold and wholesome. Should a hungry person drink of it, his hunger will be appeased,² and its satisfaction in turn renews appetite. At a little distance, in the midst of a beautiful temple, seven fountains excite the wonderment of the beholder. In the summer time self-immolating ascetics here heap up a large fire around themselves, and with the utmost fortitude suffer themselves to be burnt to ashes. This they consider a means of union with the Deity. There is also a spring which produces touchstone, and to the north of it a lofty hill which contains an iron mine.

The village of Vej Brára, one of the dependencies of I´nch is a place of great sanctity. It was formerly a large city³ and contained wonderful temples. In the vicinity is an upland meadow called Nandimarg, of which I know not whether most to praise its level sweep of mead, the loveliness of its verdure and flowers, or the bountiful virtues of its streams and its air. In the village of Pampúr one of the dependencies of Víhí, there are fields of saffron to the extent of ten or twelve thousand bíghas, a sight that would enchant the most fastidious. At the close of the month of March and during all April, which is the season of cultivation,¹ the land is ploughed up and rendered soft, and each portion is prepared with the spade for planting, and the saffron bulbs are hard in the ground. In a month's time they sprout and at the close of September, it is at its full growth, shooting up somewhat over a span. The stalk is white, and when it has sprouted to the height of a finger, it begins to flower one bud after another in succession till there are eight flowers in bloom. It has six lilac-tinted petals. Usually among six² filaments, three are yellow and three ruddy. The last three yield the saffron. When the flowers are over, leaves appear upon the stalk. Once planted it will flower for six years in succession. The first year, the yield is small: in the second as 30 to 10. In the third year it reaches its highest point and the bulbs are dug up. If left in the same soil, they gradually deteriorate, but if taken up they may be profitably transplanted.

In the village of Zéwan are a spring and a reservoir which are considered sacred, and it is thought that the saffron seed came from this spring. When the cultivation begins, they worship at this fount and pour cow's milk into it. If as it falls it sinks into the water, it is accounted a good omen and the saffron crop will be plentiful, but if it floats on the surface, it will be otherwise.

In the village of Khríu 360 springs refresh the eye and each of these is accounted a means of divine worship. Near this is an iron mine.

Maru Aḍwin adjoins Great Tibet where the Handú is found of the best breed and large in size, and carries heavy burdens. Near this is a hill called Chatar Kót on the summit of which snakes are so numerous that no one can approach it. There is also a high hill difficult of ascent, on which¹ is a large lake. It is not every one that can find his way to it, for it often disappears from sight. At the foot of the mountain in different places images of Mahádeva fashioned of a stone like crystal are found and are a source of wonder.

In the neighbourhood of Achh Dal, one of the dependencies of Khaṭṭár is a fountain which shoots up to the height of a cubit, and is scarce equalled for its coldness, limpidity and refreshing qualities. The sick that drink of it and persevere in a course of its waters, recover their health.

In the village of Kotihár² is a deep spring, surrounded by stone temples. When its water decreases, an image of Mahádeva in sandal-wood appears. The quality of this spring does not alter.

In the vicinity of Wular is a lofty mountain, containing a salt spring. The Kashmír stag³ is here found in numbers.

Matan⁴ stands upon a hill and once possessed a large temple. There is a small pool on the summit, the water of which never decreases. Some suppose this to be the Well of Babylon, but at the present day there is no trace of anything but an ordinary pit.

On the slope of the hill is a spring, at the head of which a reservoir has been constructed, full of fish. The sanctity of the place preserves them from being touched. By the side of it is a cave, the depth of which cannot be ascertained.

In Kháwarpárah is a source, whose waters tumble headlong with a mighty roar.

In the village of Aish¹ is the cell of Bábá Zainu'ddín Ríshi. It is in the side of a hill. It is said that in ancient times the hill held no water, but when he took up his abode there, a spring began to flow. For twelve years he occupied this cell and at length closed its mouth with a large stone and never went forth again, and none has ever found trace of him.

The town of Dachchhinpárah² is on the side of a mountain bordering Great Tibet and is fed by the waters of the above-mentioned spring. Between Great Tibet and the above-mentioned parganah is a cave in which is an image in ice called Amar Nát. It is considered a shrine of great sanctity. When the new moon rises from her throne of rays, a bubble as it were of ice is formed in the cave which daily increases little by little for fifteen days till it is somewhat higher than two yards, of the measure of the yard determined by His Majesty; with the waning moon, the image likewise begins to decrease, till no trace of it remains when the moon disappears. They believe it to be the image of Mahádeva and regard it as a means (through supplication) of the fulfilment of their desires. Near the cave is a rill called Amráoti, the clay of which is extremely white. They account it auspicious and smear themselves with it. The snows of this mountainous tract nowhere melt, and from the extreme cold, the straitness of the defiles and the rough inequalities of the road, they are surmounted with great toil.

In the village of Dákhámún is a spring, and whenever its water boils up and becomes turbid its surface is covered with particles of straw and rubbish, the dust of dissension arises in the country. A quarry of Solomon's stone¹ is in the vicinity of which utensils are fashioned.

About the parganah of Phák grow a variety of herbs and plants. Adjoining is a large lake called Dal. One side of it is contiguous to the city and on its surface a number of floating islands² are constructed which are cultivated, and fraudulent people will at times cut off a piece and carry it away to a different position. Sulṭán Zainu'l Aábidín constructed in this lake a causeway (sad) of clay and stone one kós in length from the city to this parganah. In the vicinity also is a spring of which the sick drink and are restored to health.

In the village of Thíd,¹ is a delightful spot where seven springs unite: around them are stone buildings, memorials of bygone times. There is also a source which in winter is warm and in summer cold.

In the village of Bázwál is a waterfall from the crest of Sháhkót. It is called Shálahmár. Here fish are caught in numbers. A streamlet is caged at two ends and when the water is carried off, the fish between are taken.

In Ishibári² is a spring held sacred by the people of Hindustán, called Suryasar, surrounded by stone temples. Shakarnág is a spring which is dry all the year, but should the 9th of any month happen to fall on a Friday, it bubbles up and flows from morn till eve, and people flock to partake of its blessings.

In the village of Rambal³ are a spring and a pool. Those who have special needs throw in a nut, if it floats, it is an augury of success; if it sinks, it is considered adverse.

In Bánihal is a temple dedicated to Durgah. If any one desires to learn the issue of a strife between himself and his enemy, he fills two vessels with boiled rice, the one representing his own fortunes, the other those of his foe, and places them in the temple and closes the doors. On the following day the devotees present themselves to learn the result. In whose vessel roses and saffron are found, his undertaking will prosper, and that which is full of straws and dirt, portends the ruin of the person it represents. Stranger still, in a dispute where it is difficult to discover the truth, each party is given a fowl or a goat and sent to the temple. They then poison each of these animals and severally rub them with their hands. His animal whose cause is just recovers, and the other dies.

In the Vér tract of country is the source of the Bihat. It is a pool measuring a jaríb which tosses in foam with an astonishing roar, and its depth is unfathomable. It goes by the name of Vernág⁴ and is surrounded by a stone embankment and to its east are temples of stone. In the village of Ḳambar is a spring callcd Bawan Sendh⁵ which during two months of the spring-time is in agitation. It is always full and its water never decreases.

In Devsar in the village of Balau is a pool called Balau Nág 20 yards square in which the water is agitated: it is embosomed in delightful verdure and canopied by shady trees. Whosoever is desirous of knowing the prospects of the harvest, or whether his own circumstances are to be prosperous or unfavourable, fills an earthen vessel with rice, writes his name on its rim, and closing its mouth, casts it into the spring. After a time the vessel of its own accord floats on the surface, and he then opens it and if the rice be fragrant and warm, the year will be prosperous and his undertakings successful, but if it be filled with clay or mud and rubbish, the reverse will be the case.¹

Veshau² is the name of a stream which issues picturesquely from an orifice in a mountain, and at the same place is a declivity down which the waters tumble from a height of 20 yards with a thundering roar. Hindu devotees throw themselves down from its summit and with the utmost fortitude sacrifice their lives, in the belief that it is a means of securing their spiritual welfare.

Kuthár³ is a spring which remains dry for eleven years, and when the planet Jupiter enters the sign of Leo, it flows on the following Thursday and during the succeeding seven days is again dry and once more fills on the Thursday next following, and so continues for a year.

In the village of Matalhámah is a wood in which is a heronry,⁴ the feathers are taken for plumes, and the birds are here regularly fed.

Near Shukroh⁵ is a low hill on the summit of which is a fountain which flows throughout the year and is a place of pilgrimage for the devout. The snow does not fall on this spur.

In Nágám is a spring called Nílah Nág,¹ the basin of which measures 40 bigahs. Its waters are exquisitely clear and it is considered a sacred spot, and many voluntarily perish by fire about its border. Strange to relate omens are taken by its means. A nut is divided into four parts and thrown in, and if an odd number floats, the angury is favourable, if otherwise, the reverse. In the same way if milk (thrown in) sinks, it is a good omen, and if not, it is unpropitious. In ancient times a volume, which they call Nilmat, arose from its depths, which contained a detailed description of Kashmír and the history and particulars of its temples. They say that a flourishing city with lofty buildings is underneath its waters, and that in the time of Badu Sháh,² a Bráhman descended into it and returned after three days, bringing back some of its rarities and narrated his experiences.

In the village of Bíruwá is a spring and in its water lepers bathe early on the first day of the week and are restored to health. In the vicinity is a plateau, a pasture ground for cattle, the grass of which has peculiar fattening properties.

In the village of Halthal of the parganah of I´tchh is found a quivering tree.³ If the smallest branch of it be shaken, the whole tree becomes tremulous.

Lár borders on the mountains of Great Tibet. To its north is a lofty mountain which dominates all the surrounding country, and the ascent of which is arduous. At its foot are two springs, two yards distant from each other, the waters of one being extremely cold and those of the other exceedingly hot. They are considered sacred and the bones of bodies are here reduced to ashes: the bones and ashes of the dead are cast into a large lake on the mountain and this ceremony is regarded as a means of union with the Divinity. If the flesh of an animal fall into it, a heavy fall of snow and rain ensues. The river called Sind which rises in Tibet, is wholesome to drink, and is so clear that the fish in it are visible. They strike them with iron spears and catch them also in other ways. Shahábu'ddínpúr is on the banks of the Bihat, and about it are large plane trees which is a favourite resort. The Sind joins the Bihat at this point.

In Tulmúlá is an area of about 100 bíghas in extent which is flooded during the rains, and remains somewhat moist even after the waters have dried up. The people plunge in sticks of a yard in length, more or less, and work them about, and thrusting their hands into the holes pull out fish of four pounds weight and more, but commonly of small size.

In Satpúr is a pool, the depth of which cannot be fathomed. It is held in great veneration and is a place of worship. Bhutesar is a temple dedicated to Mahádeva. Whoever approaches to pay his devotions, hears the sounds of ceremonial worship and no one can tell whence they proceed.

In Khoiháma which adjoins Little Tibet is a large lake called the Wular twenty-eight kós in circumference. The Bihat flows into it and its course is somewhat lost to the eye.¹ Here Sulṭán Zainu'l Aábidín built a large palace called Zain Lanka. Boats full of stones and branches of trees are sunk in the lake and pulled up by ropes after the lapse of three or four months, and many fish are taken that have homed there. The capture of water-fowl here affords considerable sport, and in the village of Ajas,² stags are chased down to the lake and taken. Near Máchhámú is an island covered with trees which when shaken by the wind, cause the island also to quake.

Saffron is also cultivated in Paraspúr. It formerly held a lofty temple which when destroyed by Sikandar father of Sulṭán Zainu'l Aábidín, a copper tablet was discovered on which was inscribed in Sanskrit, that after the lapse of eleven hundred years, one Sikandar, would destroy it and gather for himself exceeding great chastisement.³

In the Parganah of Kamráj¹ at the village of Trahgám the residence of the Chaks is a fountain of sweet water called Chatarnág and in the middle is a stone building of great age. The fish grow to great size but whosoever touches them, is afflicted by some calamity.

Near Kargón is a defile called Sóyam² where an area of ten jaríbs of land becomes so hot at the time of the conjunction of Jupiter and Leo that trees are burnt up and a vessel of water if left on the ground will boil. A flourishing little town stands here. From Kamráj is a defile, one end of which touches Káshghar and on the west lies Pakli, where gold is obtained in the following manner. The skins of long-haired goats are spread in the fords of the river, with stones placed round them that the current may not bear them away. They are taken up after three days and left in the sun. When dry, they are shaken, yielding their three tolahs weight of gold dust. Gilgit is the name of another pass which leads to Káshghar. Gold is there obtained by soil washings.

At two days' distance from Háehámún is the river named Padmati which flows from the Dárdu³ country. Gold is also found in this river. On its banks is a stone temple called ´Sárada¹ dedicated to Durgá, and regarded with great veneration. On every eighth tithi of Shuklapachch,² it begins to shake and produces the most extraordinary effect.

The system of revenue collection is by appraisement and division of crops, assessments for crops paying special rates and cash transactions not being the custom of the country. Some part of the ´Sair Jihát³ cesses, however, are taken in cash. Payments in coin and kind were estimated in kharwárs of (Sháli) rice. Although one-third⁴ had been for a long time past the nominal share of the State, more than two shares was actually taken but through His Majesty's justice, it has been reduced to one half. According to the assessment of Ḳázi⁵ (Ali) the revenue was fixed at 30 lakhs, 63,050 kharwárs, 11 taraks, each kharwár being 3 man, 8 sérs Akbarsháhi. A weight of two dáms is called a pal, and ½ and ¼ of this weight are also in use.

Seven and a half pals are considered equivalent to one sér, two sérs are equal to half a man, and four sérs to a tarak, and sixteen taraks to one kharwár. A tarak, according to the royal weights (of Akbar) is eight sérs. Taking the prices current for several years, the Ḳázi struck an average of the aggregate, and the kharwár (in kind) was ascertained to be 29 dáms, and the kharwár in money, was fixed according to the former rate of 138/25 dáms. The revenue, therefore, amounted to 7 krórs, 46 lakhs, 70,411 dáms. (Rs. 1,866,760-4-5), out of which 9 lakhs, 1,663 kharwárs and 8 taraks were paid in money, equivalent to 1 krór, 20 lakhs, 22,183 dáms. (Rs. 300,554-9-2.) The revenue fixed by A´ṣaf Khan,¹ was 30 lakhs, 79,443 kharwárs, of which 10 lakhs, 11,330½² kharwárs were in money. The cesses báj and tamghá,³ were altogether remitted by His Majesty, which produced a reduction of 67,824½ kharwárs, equivalent to 898,400 dáms. (Rs. 22,460.) For the additional relief of the husbandman, five dáms on the price of a kharwár, were thrown in. Although the revenue, in kharwárs, of A´ṣaf Khán was in excess of that of Ḳázi Ali by 16,392 kharwárs, yet calculated in money the receipts are less, after deducting the remissions, by 860,034½ dáms (Rs. 21,500-13-7), because he estimated the kharwár in money which is of lower relative worth, above its value.

In the revenue returns forwarded by Ḳázi Ali to the Imperial Exchequer, forty-one parganahs are taken while the return submitted by A´saf Khán contains but thirty-eight, there being but thirty-eight in point of fact. For Ḳázi Ali on a review of the question separated the two villages Karná and Dárdu, of the parganah of Kamráj, and dividing the parganah of Sáir i Mawázi into two, constituted these into two parganahs. In former times certain selected towns of each parganah were denominated Sáiru'l Mawázi (village-group) and were held as Kháliṣah.⁴ Ḳázi Ali united forty villages of the Marráj¹ side under the name of Parganahi Háveli and retained eighty-eight² villages of Kamráj according to the for mer distribution, as parganah of Sáiru'l Mawázi.

The whole kingdom was divided under its ancient rulers into two divisions, Marráj on the east, and Kamráj on the west.

At the present day that a great part of the army in Kashmír has been withdrawn, the local militia consists of 4,892 cavalry and 92,400 infantry.

Containing 38 Mahals. Revenue 3,011,618 kharwárs, 12 taraks, being equivalent to 62,113,040½ dáms. (Rs. 1,552,826); out of which 9,435,006 kharwárs, 14 taraks is paid in money, equivalent to 12,501,880 dáms. (Rs. 312,547.) Castes, various. Cavalry, 3,202. Infantry, 27,725.

Containing 22 Mahals. Revenue 1,792,819 kharwárs, equivalent to 35,796,122½ dáms, (Rs. 894,903), of which 670,551 kharwárs, 12 taraks are paid in money, equivalent to 8,885,248 dáms, (Rs. 222,131-3-2). Cavalry, 1,620. Infantry, 4,600.

City of ´Srinagar. Revenue 342,694 kharwárs, 12 taraks, in money, 342,996 kharwárs, 8 taraks; in kind, 1,698 kharwárs, 4 taraks.

Containing 16 Mahals. Revenue 1,218,799 kharwárs, 12 taraks, equivalent to 26,316,918 dáms. (Rs. 657,922-15-2.) In money, 272,954½ kharwárs, equivalent to 3,616,632 dáms. (Rs. 90,415-12-9.) Cavalry, 1,590. Infantry, 16,965.

Ugnand.

Damódar,his sons.

Bál,

Thirty-five princes succeeded whose names are unknown.⁶

Lavah, (var. Lava.)

Kishen, his son (var. Kish.)

Kahgandra, his son.

Surandra, his son.

Godhara, of another tribe.

Súran, his son.

Janaka, his son.

Shachinar, (var. Hashka, Bíshka).

Asóka, son of Janaka's paternal uncle.

Jalóka, his son.

Damódar, descendant of Asóka.

Hashka,three brothers. Buddhists.

Zashka.

Kaniska,

Abhiman.

Thus this series of 191 princes, reigning throughout a period of 4,109 years, 11 months and 9 days, passed away.

When the Imperial standards were for the first time borne aloft in this garden of perpetual spring, a book called Ráj Tarangini written in the Sanskrit tongue containing an account of the princes of Kashmír during a period of some four thousand years, was presented to His Majesty. It had been the custom in that country for its rulers to employ certain learned men in writing its annals. His Majesty who was desirous of extending the bounds of knowledge appointed capable interpreters in its translation which in a short time was happily accomplished. In this work it is stated that the whole of this mountainous region was submerged under water and called Sati Sar. Sati is the name of the wife of Mahádeva, and Sar signifies a lake. One day of Brahmá comprises 14 manvantaras.¹ Up to the 40th year of the Divine Era, of the seventh manvantara, at which time Kashmír began to be inhabited, 27 (kalpas) each of four cycles (yug) as before mentioned,¹ have elapsed and of the twenty-eighth three cycles, and of the fourth cycle 4,701 solar years. And when, according to the legend which they relate, the waters had somewhat subsided, Kasyapa who is regarded as one of the most sublime amongst ascetics, brought in the Bráhmans to inhabit the new region.² When men began to multiply they sought to have a just ruler over them, and experienced elders, solicitous of the public weal met together in council and elected to the supreme authority one who was distinguished for his wisdom, his large understanding, his comprehensive benevolence and his personal courage. From this period dates the origin of their monarchical government which proceeded thus to the time of Ugnand 4,044 years prior to this the 40th year of the Divine Era.³ Ugnand fell by the hand of Balbhadra, the elder brother of Kishan in the battle fought at Mathura betwean Kishan and Jarasandha rájá of Behár. Damódara (his son), to revenge his death marched against some of the relations of Kishan who were hastening to a marriage festival in Ḳandahár, and was killed fighting on the banks of the Sind. His wife being then pregnant and the astrologers foretelling that it would prove a son, Kishan bestowed on him the government of the province. Thirty-five princes succeeded, but through their tyranny their names are no more remembered. When Lavah ascended the throne, justice was universally administered and deeds met their just recognition. He founded in Kámraj the great city of Lavapúr the ruins of which are still to be traced It is said to have held 800,000,000 houses. As the sage⁴ of Ganjah well says:

House linked to house fnom Ispahan to Rai
Like jointed canes, I've heard, stretch countlessly,
So that a cat might trace the distant span
From roof to roof twixt Rai and Ispahan;
But if the tale my credit doth belie,
The teller is its surety, faith not I.

When the succession devoled on Asoka the son of Janaka's paternal uncle, he abolished the Brahminical religion and established the Jain faith.¹ His personal virtues adorned his reign, and his son Rájá Jalóka was distinguished for his justice, and his conquests were limited only by the ocean. On his return from Kanauj, then the capital of Hindustán, he brought with him a number of learned and enlightened men and of these his sagacity and perception of worth selected seven individuals. To one of them he entrusted the administration of justice; to another the revenue department; to a third the finances; to a fourth the superintendence of the troops; the fifth took charge of the department of commerce; the sixth controlled the material resources of the state, and the seventh interpreted the mysteries of the stars. He had also a knowledge of alchemy. It is said that a huge serpent ministered to his commands, mounted upon which be could descend below water for a long space. Sometimes he appeared as an old man, and at other times, as a youth, and marvellous tales are related of him. Buddhism became prevalent about this time.

Damodar (II) is said by some to have been one of the descendants of Asoka. He was a pious devout prince but was transformed into a snake through the curse of an ascetic. In the reign of Rájá Nara the Bráhmans prevailed over the Buddhists and levelled their temples to the ground. Rájá Mihirkal was a shameless tyrant, but by the strange freaks of fortune he made extensive conquests. As he was once returning homewards by the pass of Hastibhanj, an elephant lost its footing, and its screams and manner of falling caused him such amusement that he ordered a hundred elephants to be precipitated in a similar manner. From this circumstance the pass received its name hasti signifying elephant, and bhanj,¹ injury. During his reign, a large rock blocked up the ferry of a river, and, however much it was cut away, it yet increased again during the night to its ordinary dimensions. Remedies were proposed in vain. At length a voice came forth intimating that if touched by the hand of a chaste woman, the rock would displace itself. Time after time it was touched by women in succession, and when no effect was produced, he ordered the women to be put to death for incontinence, the children for bastardy, and the husbands for consenting to the evil, until three krórs of human beings were massacred. The miracle was at length effected by the hand of a chaste woman, a potter by trade and caused great wonder. The Rájá being afflicted by various diseases, burnt himself to death.

Rájá Gopadit possessed considerable learning and his justice increased the extent of his sway. The slaughtering of animals was forbidden throughout his dominions and high and low abstained from eating flesh. The temple which now stands on Solomon's Hill was built by his minister.

Rájá Judishthira in the beginning of his rule administered the state with an impartial hand, but in a short space through his licentious conduct and intimacy with base associates, his subjects became extranged from him, and the kings of Hindustán and Tibet were arrayed against him. The chiefs of Kashmír threw him into prison.

During the reign of Rájá Tanjir (Banjír) snow fell when the sun was in Leo (July, August). The crops were destroyed and a terrible famine threw the country into disorder.

Rájá Jayandra possessed a minister wise, loyal and virtuous, and void of levity and dissimulation. His equals bore him envy and the wicked at heart but specious in appearance sought his ruin and undermined his influence by underhand misrepresentations. As princes are on these occasions apt to err and do not investigate closely, forgetful of former experiences of what envy can effect, the minister was overthrown, and banished in disgrace. His strange destiny, however, did not deprive him of his composure. He allowed not grief to encompass him, but gladdened his days with cheerfulness of heart. His wicked enemies represented him as aiming at the throne, and the Rájá, ignorant of the real facts, ordered him to be impaled. After some time had elapsed, his spiritual preceptor happened to pass that way and read on the frontal bone of his skull that he was destined to disgrace and imprisonment and to be impaled, but that he should again come to life and obtain the sovereignty. Amazed at learning this, he took down the body and secretly kept it and continued in supplication to the Almighty. One night the spirits gathered round and by their incantations restored the corpse to life. In a short time he succeeded to the throne, but his experience of life soon induced him to withdraw into retirement.

Megaváhan was renowned for his virtues and gave peace and security to Hindustán as far as the borders of the ocean. After the death of Rájá Hiran without issue, the chiefs of Kashmír paid allegiance to Rájá Bikramájít the ruler of Hindustán. Rájá Matrigupta was a learned Kashmíri Bráhman. Bikramájít profited by his wisdom but did not advance his temporal interests. He, however, gave him a sealed letter to convey to Kashmír and furnishing him with a small sum of money for his expenses as he started, despatched him on his mission. The Bráhman set out with a heavy heart. On his arrival in Kashmír, the letter was opened. It ran thus. ‘The bearer has rendered important services at my Court and has experienced many reverses of fortune. On the receipt of this letter, let the government of the country be entrusted to him, and be this mandate obeyed under fear of the royal displeasure.’ The chiefs met in council and yielded their submission.

Rájá Pravaraséna had withdrawn from the country and lived in retirement in Hindustán. A devout and enlightened servant of God predicted to him the good tidings of his future elevation to a throne. On the faith of this, he went to Nagarkóṭ and possessed himself of that place. On hearing of the death of Bikramájít, Matrigupta abdicated and setting out for Benares lived in seclusion. Pravaraséna was universally distinguished for his justice and liberality. He founded Srinagar¹ the capital of the country and rendered it populous during his reign with 600,000 houses. With surpassing munificence he sent to Mátrigupta the aggregate of eleven years' revenue of Kashmír which that personage bestowed upon the indigent. Rájá Ranáditya was a just prince and made many conquests. In the neighbourhood of Kishtawár near the river Chenáb, he entered a cave with all his family and many of his courtiers, and was seen no more; many strange legends are related regarding him. Rájá Báláditya invaded Hindustán and extended his dominions to the borders of the sea.

In the reign of Rájá Chandrapíṛa the wife of a Bráhman appeared to him claiming justice, saying, that her husband had been killed and the murderer was undiscovered. He asked her if she suspected any one, to which she replied that her husband was of an amiable disposition and had no enemy, but that he often had disputations on points of philosophy with a certain person. This man was brought up but strenuously denied the accusation, and the complainant would not accept an ordeal by fire or water lest the man should employ some supernatural means of escaping it. The Rájá in his perplexity could neither eat nor sleep. An enlightened sage appearing to him in a vision taught him an incantation to be uttered over rice meal scattered about, upon which the suspected person was to walk. If the footsteps of two people were observed as he passed over it, he was not to be suffered to escape. Through this suggestion the truth was discovered and punishment duly meted out. But as a Bráhman could not be put to death, an iron image of a man without a head was made and his forehead branded therewith.

Rájá Lalitáditya devoted himself to the prosperity of his kingdom and in the strength of the divine aid overran Irán, Turán, Fárs, Hindustán, Khaṭa, and the whole habitable globe, and administered his dominions with justice. He died in the mountains of the north, and it is said that he was turned into stone by the curse of an ascetic, but others relate the story differently.

Rájá Jayápíṛa reached a lofty pitch of glory and his conquests were extensive. Ninety-nine thousand nine hundred and ninety-nine horses were bestowed by him in charity at Benares, and his gifts to the poor were on the same munificent scale. He asked of the elders whether the army of his grandfather Lalitáditya or his own were the larger. They answered that his contained but 80,000 litters, whereas 125,000 of such conveyances were arrayed under his grandfather's standard, by which proportion he might judge of the numerical strength of his other retinue. When he had proceeded some distance on his march of conquest, his brother-in-law, Jajja, who was in Kashmír disputed the throne. The nobles of the king, in anxious fear for their wives and children, betrayed him and preferred their outward reputation before their true honour. The Rájá hastened alone to Bengal, and with the aid of troops from that country, repossessed himself of his kingdom, Jajja being slain in battle.

Rájá Lalitápíṛa took low companions into favour and associated with buffoons, and his wise councillors withdrew from the court. His minister finding remonstrance of no avail, retired from office.

Rájá Sankar Varmá conquered Gujarát and Sind, and overran the Deccan, but left it in the possession of its ruler. Although in the beginning of his reign he followed a virtuous course, he lacked perseverance. The intoxication of worldly prosperity plunged him into every vice.

During the reign of Rájá Jasaskardeva, a Bráhman lost a purse of a hundred gold mohurs. Under the impulse of violent grief he resolved to make away with himself. The thief hearing of this, asked him how much he would be satisfied to take, if he discovered the purse. The Bráhman answered, “Whatever you please.” The thief offered him ten mohurs. The Bráhman, sore at heart, appealed to the Rájá who inquired into the case, and sending for the thief ordered him to restore ninety mohurs, intending by this, that the amount the thief desired to keep for himself, should be the portion of the Bráhman.

In the reign of Sínhadeva, a Muḥammadan named Sháh Amir who traced his descent to Arjun the Pandava was in the royal service. About this time Dalju the chief commander under the king of Ḳandahár, attacked and plundered the kingdom. The Rájá took refuge in the mountain passes and levied forcible contributions on the people, and sent them to him and entreated him as a supplicant. The invader withdrew, dreading the severity of the weather, and many of his troops perished in the snow. About the same time also, Rinjan, the son of the ruler of Tibet invaded the country which was reduced to great distress. On the death of the Rájá, the sovereignty devolved on Rinjan who was distinguished for his munificence. He appointed Sháh Mír his minister whose religion, through intimacy and association with him, he eventually adopted.

When Rájá Adindeva died, the aforesaid Sháh Mír by specious flattery and intriguing, married his widow. In the year 742, A. H. (1341-2,

A. D.) he caused the khutbah to be read, and the coin to be minted in his own name and assumed the title of Shamsu'ddín and levied a tax of one-sixth on all imports into Kashmír. It had been revealed to him in a dream that he would obtain the sovereignty of the kingdom.¹

Sulṭán Aláu'ddín issued an ordinance that an unchaste woman should not inherit of her husband.

Sulṭán Shahábu'ddín encouraged learning and proclaimed an equal administration of the laws. Nagarkót, Tibet and other places were overrun by him.

During the reign of Sulṭán Ḳutbu'ddín Mír Sayyid Ali Hamadáni arrived in Kashmír and was received with great favour.

Sulṭán Sikandar was a rigid follower of religious tradition and a bigot. He overthrew idolatrous shrines and persecuted people not of his faith. During his reign, Timúr invaded Hindustán and sent him two elephants. Sikandar desired to pay his homage to that conqueror, but on his road to the interview he learnt that it was reported in Tímúr's camp that the sovereign of Kashmír was bringing with him a present of a thousand horses. Concerned at the untruthfulness of this rumour he returned and sent his excuses.² Ali Sháh appointed (his brother) Zainu'l Aábidín regent in his stead and set out for Ḥijáz. By the persuasion of foolish and evil advisers³ and through inconstancy of purpose, he returned with the view of recovering his authority in Kashmír and aided by the Rájá of Jammu he took possession of the kingdom. Zainu'l Aábidín set out for the Punjáb and joined Jasrat of the Khokhar¹ tribe. Ali Sháh collecting a large army advanced into the Punjáb and a great battle took place in which Ali Sháh was defeated and fell into obscurity while Zainu'l Aábidín recovered the sovereignty of Kashmír. Jasrat leaving Kashmír advanced against Delhi but defeated by Sulṭán Bahlol Lodi retreated to Kashmír and with the assistance of an army from its monarch, conquered the Panjáb.

Zainu'l Aábidín overran Tibet and Sind. He was a wise prince, devoted to philosophical studies and it was his fortune to enjoy universal peace. He was regarded by high and low as a special servant of God and venerated as a saint. He was credited with the power of divesting himself of his corporeal form, and he foretold that under the dynasty of the Chaks, the sovereignty of Kashmír would be transferred from that family to the monarchs of Hindustán, which prediction after a period of years was ac-complished. His benevolence and love of his people induced him to abolish the capitation tax (levied on other than Muslims) and to prohibit the slaughtering of cows, as well as penalties and presents of all kinds. He added somewhat to the measure of the Jaríb. His private revenues were drawn from copper mines. He often personally administered medicinal remedies² and resolved all difficult undertakings with ease. Robbers were employed in chained gangs on public works. His gentleness of disposition dissuaded men from the pursuit of game, and he himself eat no flesh meat. He caused many works to be translated from the Arabic, Persian, Kashmíri and Sanskrit languages. During his reign musicians from Persia and Turkestán flocked to his court; among them Mulla Ụúdi the immediate pupil of the famous Khwájah Abdu'l Ḳádir arrived from Khurásán, and Mulla Jamíl who in singing and painting was preeminent among his contemporaries. Sulṭán Abu Sạíd Mirzá sent him presents of Arab horses and dromedaries from Khurásán and Bahlol Lodi king of Delhi and Sulṭán Maḥmúd of Gujarát were in friendly alliance with him.

Sulṭán Ḥasan, collecting an army invaded the Punjáb and encountering Tátár¹ Khán (Lodi) in several actions devastated the country.

In the reign of Fatḥ Sháh, Mír Shamsu'ddín one of the disciples of Sháh Ḳásim Anwár,² came from Iráḳ and promulgated the Núr Bakshi doctrines, from which period date the dissensions between Sunnis and Shíạs in this country.

During the third reign of Muḥammad Sháh when he recovered the kingdom by the help of Sulṭán Sikandar (Lodi of Delhi), Báber invaded Hindustán.

During Sulṭán Ibrahím's domination, Abdúl Mákri³ represented to Sulṭán Báber that Kashmír might be conquered with little difficulty. Shaikh Ali Beg, Muḥammad Khán and Maḥmúd Khán were therefore despatched to that country and obtained some success but the intrigues of the people prevented a settlement and they returned with gifts and presents and Názuk Sháh succeeded to the government. Under the reign of Muḥammad Sháh for the fourth time, the emperor Humáyún ascended the throne of Delhi, and when Mirzá Kámrán¹ was at Lahor, the officers formerly despatched to Kashmír (Ali Beg and Muḥammad Khán) persuaded him that Kashmír could be taken with little trouble. The Mírzá therefore, despatched Maḥram (Beg) Kokah with a body of troops to that country which they occupied. Massacres were frequent and their intolerable tyranny drove the people to rise till the Mughal chiefs sued for terms and withdrew. In the year A. H. 930, (1523-4) by command of Sulṭán Sạíd Khán of Káshghar, his son Sikandar Khán and Mirzá Haidar² advanced into Kashmír at the head of 10,000 troops by way of Tibet and Lár, and taking an enormous booty retired after a short time under terms of peace. In the year A. H. 948 (1541-2) Mirzá Haidar, by command of Humáyún a second time entered Kashmír, guided by some of the natives of that country, as has been related in former accounts, and took possession of a part of Great Tibet. Káji Chak came to Hindustán and bringing with him the aid of an army from Sher Khán, engaged Mirzá Haidar but was defeated. The Mirzá won over the Kashmíris by peaceful and conciliatory measures, so that he succeeded in having the Khutbah read and the coin minted in the name of Humáyún, the Kashmíris having previously read the Khutbah in the name of Názuk Sháh.

At the present time under the sway of His Imperial Majesty it is the secure and happy abode of many nationalities, including natives of Persia and Turkestán as well as of Kashmír.

Its length is 35 and its breadth 25 kós. It is bounded on the east by Kashmír, on the north by Katór,³ on the south by the territory of the Gakhars,⁴ and on the west by Aṭak Benáres. Timúr left a few troops to hold this tract, and their descendants remain there to this day. Snow lies perpetually on these mountains and at times falls on the plains.¹ The period of winter is longer than the summer. The rainfall is somewhat similar to Hindustán. It is watered by three rivers, the Kishan Ganga, the Bihat and the Sindh. The language of the country differs from that of Kashmír, Hindustán or Zábulistán. Vetches and barley are the principal crops. Apricots, peaches and walnuts grow wild, it not being the custom to plant fruit trees. Game and horses, camels and buffaloes are of middling account: goats and poultry, plentiful. The rulers of this district generally paid tribute to Kashmír.

It comprises three districts, those of Bimbar, Swát and Bajaur. The first is 16 kós long by 12 broad and is bounded by Pakli on the east, Kator and Káshghar² on the north, Aṭak Benáres on the south and Swát on the west. Two roads approach it from Hindustán, viz., the Shérkháni³ pass and the Balandari⁴ Kótal; although both routes are difficult to traverse, the first is the more rugged.

The second district (Swát) is 40 kós in length by 5 to 15 in breadth. On the east lies Bimbar; to the north Katór (Kunar) and Káshghar; to the south Bigrám⁵ and on the west Bajaur. It possesses many defiles. Near the Damghár⁶ pass which leads to Káshghar is the town of Manglór⁷ the residence of the governor. It is entered by two routes from Hindustán, viz., the passes of Malkand Baj¹ and Sherkhánah. It has no extremes of heat or cold, and though snow falls, it does not lie in the plains for more than three or four days; in the mountains it is perpetual. It is spring-time here during the periodical rains of Hindustán. Rainfall occurs and the spring and autumn are very delightful. Its flora are those of Turkestán and India, wild violets and narcissus covering the meadows, and various kinds of fruit trees grow wild. Peaches and pears are excellent, and fine hawks and falcons are obtained. It also possesses an iron mine.

The third district (Bajaur) is 25 kós in length by 5 to 10 in breadth. On the east lies Swát, on the north Katór and Káshghar, on the south Bigrám, and on the west Kunér (and) Núrkil.² Numerous passes lead from Kábul.

An ancient mausoleum³ exists here, and there is a strong fortress which is said to be the residence of the governor. Amír Sayyid Ali Hamadáni died here and his body was conveyed to Khutlán⁴ by his last testament. Its climate is similar to that of Swát, but the extremes of cold and heat are greater. It has only three roads, one from Hindustán called Dánishkol, and two from Kábul, one called Samaj and the other Kunér and Núrkil, the easiest of these being Dánishkol. Adjoining this and between the mountains and the Indus and Kabul rivers, is a plain, 30 kós in length by 20 to 25 kós in breadth.

The whole of this tract of hill and plain is the domain of the Yusufzai clan. In the time of Mirzá Ulugh Beg of Kábul, they migrated from Kábul to this territory and wrested it from the Sulṭáns who affected to be descended from a daughter of Alexander Bicornutus. It is said that this monarch left some of his treasures in these parts with a few of his kindred and to this day the descendants of this band dwell in these mountains and affect to show their genealogical descent from Alexander.¹

Under the present ever-during Imperial sway, of the lawless inhabitants of this country, some have been put to death, others imprisoned, while some happily dwell under their tribal rule.

This territory is to the south-east of Kábul, and is inhabited entirely by Afgháns. It is the principal settlement of the Shiráni, Kararáni and Wazíri tribes.

It is situated in the third climate. Its length from Ḳalát Banjárah to Ghor and Gharjistán³ is 300 kós: its breadth from Sind to Farah is 260 kós. On its east lies Sind; to the north Ghór and Gharjistán; on the south Síwi, and on the west Farah; Kábul and Ghaznín on the north-east. Its mountains are covered with perpetual snow which seldom falls in the city.

Eighteen dinárs⁴ make a túmán, and each túmán is equivalent to 800 dáms. The túmán of Khurásán is equal in value to 30 rupees and the túmán of Iráḳ to 40.

Grain is for the most part taken in kharwárs, the kharwár being equivalent to 40 Ḳandahári man, or 10 of Hindustán.

The capital of the district is Ḳandahár. Its longitude is 107°¹ 40', and the latitude 33° 40'. It has two forts. The summer heats are extreme and the cold in winter is inconsiderable, but the ice-pits are filled in December and January. Once in three or four years a fall of snow occurs and is hailed with delight. Flowers and fruits are in abundance. Its wheat is extremely white, and is sent as a present of value to distant countries. At a distance of five kós is a hill called Azhdarkoh (the Dragon Hill) in which is a wonderful cave known as the Cave of Jamshíd. People enter with lighted lamps, but the oppression of its atmosphere prevents exploration of its extent. Eight kós from Ḳálát is a large mountain in the side of which is a huge cave called Ghár i Sháh (the King's Cave). Within it are two natural columns, one of which touches the roof of the cave and is 30 yards high. Water flows down it and enters a basin at its foot. The other is 11 yards in height. The waters of the Hirmand (Helmand) which rises between Balkh, and Kábul, flow in this direction along the skirts² of the mountains. The meaning of Hirmand is ‘abound-ing in blessings.’ Mauláná Mụínu'ddín in his history of Khurásán records that it feeds a thousand streams. At a distance of 16 kós is a mountain, at the base of which is an area of land called Natíl,³ formerly full of watercourses, where melons are grown in great quantity and perfection. The mountain has several clear springs. There is also an iron-mine, and at the foot of the mountain is an iron-foundry for the smelting of the ore, a work of ancient times.

West of Ḳandahár is a long torrid tract of country, (Garmsír) through which flows the Hirmand. One side of it touches the Dáwar⁴ territory, and on the other Sístán. There are many forts and much cultivation on both sides of the river. In this neighbourhood once stood a large city, the residence of the Sulṭáns of Ghor, and many ruins still exist of the palaces of its ancient kings.

Between the Hirmand and Ḳandahár is the well-known city of Maimand, described in old astronomical tables.

Wheat and barley are called Safédbari.¹ The jaríb of sixty (square) yards is used for measurements, but they reckon 30 yards of this according to the Hijázi jaríb, each yard of 24½ digits, the gaz there in use; equal altogether to 54 gaz of Ḳandahár. In the exchequer, out of every ten kharwárs, two are taken for the minister of finance on account of revenue and jihát cesses. Cultivation is reckoned under seven heads. In the registers, the best kind of land is marked with an and calculating the produce of each járíb at 3 kharwárs, 24 man are taken as revenue. Thus:

But if the husbandman is incapable of sustaining this class of assessment, the produce is divided into three heaps, two of which are taken by the tenant, and the third is again subdivided into three shares, two² of which go to the revenue department and the third is charged to incidental expenses.

The revenue from grapes also is taken by agreement and by paying a special rate. In the latter case experts appraise the average outturn of the vineyard and exact 4 báberies for each kharwár. Under the reigns of Báber and Humáyún the rate was fixed at 2 báberis and 4 tangahs. The baberi is one miskál¹ weight and 2½ are equivalent to the rupee. Besides these three (wheat, barley, grapes), upon nine other articles called sabzbari, 7½ báberis are taken for every jaríb, formerly rated at 5 báberis, viz., rice (Sháli), musk-melons, water-melons, cucumbers, onions, turnips, carrots and lettuce. On other crops than these, two báberis were formerly taken, the Turkománs exacting three.

In the torrid tract (above-mentioned, between Dáwar and Sístan), the safédbari crops are divided into three heaps according to the Ḳandahár custom and all crops paying special rates are registered under the and class (No. 2), and for every jaríb, 50 man of the torrid tract (Garmsír) equalling 20 man of Ḳandahár, are taken. The kharwár of this district is 100 man, equivalent to 10 man of Hindustán. Grapes are treated in the same manner as at Ḳandahár. All articles under Sabzbari, pay two baberis on each jaríb.

In the Dáwar tract, produce under safédbari is apportioned in three heaps as described above and the exchequer receives for every 4 jaríbs, one kharwár weight of Dáwar, which is equivalent to one kharwár and ten man of Ḳandahár, and for other produce, one kharwár on three jaríbs.²

Containing 24 Mahals. Revenue 8,114½ túmáns, 39,600 dinárs: 45,775 sheep; 45 Balochi horses: 3,752,977 kharwárs of grain; 420 man of rice; 2 kharwárs of flour; 20 man of clarified butter. It furnishes 13,875 Cavalry and 25,260 Infantry. Ḳandahár city—5,270 tumáns in cash; 35,120 kharwárs of corn; 550 horse; 1,000 foot.