Dabistān - The Dabistān, or School of Manners, Volume 2

SECTION THE SIXTH: ON THE JOGÍS AND THEIR DOCTRINES.—This sect believe that Isvára, or the necessary being exists, one, the principle of intellect, without an equal, without decrease nor increase. In the language of the Hindus Isa¹ signifies “lord,” and without Iśa all is but jíva,² that is “casualties;” in their language jiva means “life;” they hold Isa to be the maker of the whole world, and the creator of all the elements; his holy being is free from care, sickness, and want, and placed out of the circle of work and agency; that is, that this holy being neither wants nor urges any religious rites, such as ablution and the like; his knowledge soars above and comprehends all being; he is the Lord, and none besides him invested with supreme power; death and pain never approach his existence, which has no limits. Jíva, “life,” they call what is in the fetters of cares, in the bonds of infirmities, under the pressure of pain, and in the prison of works and doings, and subjected to the control of others, without command over itself. This life is in truth not material nor corporeal; it is by ignorance only that it is thought to be one with the body; and the body is supposed by them to be revolving in the circle of material forms: by the necessity of times and seasons, life abandons the works of the body, and passes into another frame: and in this manner it migrates. Without the abhásayóga,¹ the soul cannot be freed of the bonds of the material world, and from the prison of what is corporeal, and yóga,² in the language of the learned Hindus, signifies “union,” or “acquisition;” and abhyása,³ “the dominion of the eternal sphere,” that is, possessing the enjoyment of a desired object; and the purport of the yóga is, that the heart be constantly kept in the remembrance of God, and that no foreign object be permitted to enter into that Jerusalem, that is, the house of God. The professor of this union with the desired object reckons eight parts, which are: 1. yama;¹ 2. niyáma;² 3. ásana;³ 4. pránáyáma;⁴ 5. pratyáhára;⁵ 6. dháraná;⁶ 7. dhyána;⁷ 8. samadháraná .⁸ Yama is composed of five parts: the first is Ahinsá,⁹ that is, doing injury to nothing, and to kill no other but the great wild beasts; 2. Satyam,¹⁰ or “truth;” 3. Astéyam,¹¹ that is, not stealing nor robbing; 4. Brahma tchárí,¹² or to keep away from women, and all intercourse with them, and to sleep upon the bare ground; 5. Apragraha,¹³ which is, not to ask any thing from any body, and never to take but what is brought unasked. Niyáma, the second of the eight parts, is divided also into five kinds: the first, tápasa,¹ that is, “devout austerity;” 2. japa,² or “devotion by means of beads, stripes of cloth, ejaculations, mental or loud repetition of the names and attributes of God;” 3. Sama,³ which is, “tranquillity and satisfaction;” 4. Suchi,⁴ or “purity, sanctity, perfection;” 5. Iśa-pútcha,⁵ “worshipping and praising God.” Asana, the third of the eight parts of the yoga, means “sitting in some particular posture,” various kinds of which are used among them. Pránáyama, the fourth part, consists in “drawing in and letting out the breath, according to an established mode and fixed rule.” Pratyá hára, the fifth part, signifies “withdrawing the heart from all the desires and attractions of the five senses; and keeping away from all sorts of lust, the sight of beauty, the odor of the rose and of sandal, and from all material and exterior enjoyments.” Dhárana,⁶ the sixth part, implies that, “in the heart of the cone-bearing tree, which is the centre of the bosom, and which the people of India have compared to the flower of a pond (lotus), the heart holds a fixed habitation; that is, they guard it in that place.”

Dhyána, the seventh part, is the remembrance of God the Almighty. Samadhárana, the eighth part, signifies that the heart, attached to the work of God, forgets the work of the world, in such a manner that in his presence, turned towards him, it remains absorbed in him, and feels itself lightened of all exterior sense and satisfied. The wise, who carries these eight parts to a high degree of perfection, hears and sees from afar; his pure knowledge elevates him; and he becomes strong in the science of Yog, which is the science of the union with the desired object; the all-bounteous God regards him with pity, and discards all pains, all sicknesses, all wants, and all deficiencies from his existence. According to this sect, it is by attaining to these eight conditions, that Mukt, which signifies “emancipation,” is acquired.

This is the substance of the doctrine of the Yogís; now, I will relate something of the opinions and actions of these sectaries, who have been noticed in this time as professing the doctrine of the Yog. The Yogís are a class well known in India, and yóga, in the Sanskrit language, means “union;” they believe that they unite with God, whom they call Alíka,¹ and according to their creed he is the divinity by excellence; moreover his being is to be venerated under the name of Gorakhnáth;¹ in like manner, Machhenáernáth ² and Chórengínáth³ are great personages or saints.

They believe Brahma, Vichnu, and Mahadeva to be subordinate divinities, but they are, as followers and disciples, addicted to Gorakhnath; thus, some devote themselves to the one or the other of the deities.

This sect is divided into twelve classes, which are as follow:⁴ Satyanath, Ayípanthi, Kaśyapa, Vairag, Nátírí, Ardhanarí, Náyari, Amara nath, Kam-híbdás, Jóli handi, Tarnaknath, Jágar prarág: these are called panthi nék, “good sects,” and panthi signifies “a tribe, a sect.”¹ According to their opinion, the chiefs of all religions, sects, and creeds proceed as disciples from the prophet and saint Gorakhnath, and what they found, they have found it from him. Their belief is that Muhammed (to whom be peace) was also a pupil and disciple of Gorakhnath, but, from fear of the Muselmans, they dare not declare it; they say, that Bábá Rin Háji, that is, Gorakhnath, was the foster-father of the prophet, who, having received the august mission, took the mode of Yog from the sublime road of true faith; and a great many of them agree with the Muselmans in fasting and in prayers, and perform several acts according to the religion of that people. The sect of Yogís know no prohibited food; they eat pork as the Hindus and the Naźárains, and cow-flesh, like the Muselmans, and so on; they also kill and eat men, according to the custom of the Akmían, as will be related hereafter; and they drink wine like the Guébers. There are some of this sect, who, having mixed their excretions and filtered them through a piece of cloth, drink them and say, that such an act renders a man capable of great affairs, and they pretend to know strange things. They call the performer of this act Atílía and also Akhórí. Although they have all originated from Gorakhnath, and adhere to him in the generality of their faith, yet some follow the road of those who attached themselves to the twelve divisions of the Yoga.

Among them, the restraining of the breath is held in great esteem, such as it was practised among the Parsian by Azar Hushang, and by the kings of that people. It is stated in the Bastán namah, that Afrasíab, the son of Pashang, was strong in restraining his breath, and it was on account of this qualification that, when he had escaped from the sling of Aâbid, he kept himself concealed in the water. This history is known.¹ Among the Hindus and the Parsian Yezdanián, nothing is esteemed higher than this. I have said something of this custom in the article upon the Parsian Sipasían: in this place I shall state more of it.

This science of the breath is an imaginary one. The Yogis, the Sanyásies, the Hindus, and the Tapasís, say that, when one has the intention of mastering his breath, he most strictly abstains from intercourse with women, from eating salt and any thing bitter and sour, as well as from toil; then, tending towards this purpose, he will know that from the place of sitting to the summit of the head there are seven divisions of the body, which the Azarián call haft khán amèkhi, “the seven places of. union,” and the Yogís, sapta chakra,¹ “seven circles.” The first is the region about the pubis, similar to a flower with four leaves; the Hindus call it muládhára.² In the middle of this originates a member, which the Hindus call manthar,³ and the Arabians zicker, and this is the second region. The third is the navel, from the centre of which proceeds a fire-colored vein, entitled by the Hindus nábhi chakra.¹ The fourth region is that of the heart, called by the Hindus manipuram,² and that is like a flower with twelve leaves. The fifth is the windpipe, in the language of the Hindus ka nťa.³ The sixth comprehends the interval between the two eyebrows, in Sanskrit bhruva.⁴ The seventh region is that of the head, which is called by the Hindus brahmanda.⁵ It is to be known that in these regions there are many veins, among which three, as the principal, are to be distinguished: the one is on the right side, “the solar vein;” the other in the middle, “the earthen;” the third on the left side, “the lunar;” these veins are named in the language of the Hindus áditya, pankila, and somana;⁶ in the Persian language, mahna, míná, and máná.⁷ One of the three veins is the greatest, that, namely, which running from the middle of the back to the right of the back bone, divides beyond it into two branches, the one of which attains to the right, the other to the left of the nostrils; the breath and the wind comes from them, and the air which proceeds from these veins extends, during a man's being awake, to twelve, during sleep to thirty-two, and during coition to sixty-four fingers: this air and breath they hold to be the foundation of life, and a great importance is attached to this subject by the learned Sipásian and Hindus. They believe the wind to be of ten kinds; but what according to them is essential to know, is the superior and inferior winds, which by the Hindus are called Prána and Apána;¹ by the Persians, Alayi and Pásáyi. These two winds attract each other mutually, and in pronouncing “han,” the breath goes out, in pronouncing “sa,” it goes within; and this takes place during prayers, without the aid and the motion of the tongue; when they fix upon a name, it becomes hansa, and they say also hamsa: the Hindus call it ajapa,² that is, it is pronounced without the aid of the tongue; and in Persian it has the name of damáníbád, or “sound of the wind.” Thus there is, above the channel of the region of the pubis, a most subtile vein; from the summit of the shank a flower, bright and similar to gold in redness, expands itself from eight roots, and after having from this origin raised its head, and taken the high direction to the top of the head, it is there closed: this the Hindus call Kundelí,¹ “a snake;” and the Persians Ruhen mar, and Ráushibár: and the path of the vein of the head is a middle one. When the Kundeli awakes to draw breath from a high feeling, it rises to the summit of the head; in like manner as a thread passes through the eye of a needle, it goes through the said opening to the top of the head. If thou knowest this mode well, thou understandest the modes of sitting; of these we mentioned one in the section upon the Sipasián; in this place we shall give a further account of this subject. The most approved mode of sitting is that which in the Hindu language is called Maha ásana,² and Sáda ásana,³ that is “sitting as the High, the mature of age, and the accomplished,” which in Persian is termed sánishín. The mode of this is as follows: the heel of the left foot is placed at the orifice of the anus, and the heel of the other foot raised up straight to the pubis, and to the bust; the eyes, without twinkling, are directed to the middle of the eyebrows, then the part about the pubis is put in motion; the inferior wind is drawn with the superior towards the upper parts, and raised by degrees until it reaches the head. We have explained the mode of drawing up the breath in the section upon the Sipasían. At the time of drawing it up, the beginning is made on the side of the left, for emission through the right, of the nostrils; when drawn up on the right it is also passing through the right, and the inferior wind emitted: this performance is called Pránáyama,¹ by the Hindus, and Aferasdam, that is, “raising of the breath,” by the Persians. The devotee, on drawing up the breath at the left side, forms the image of the moon; that is, he places the disk of the moon to the left, and to the right that of the sun. Some of the Sipásian place the image of one of the seven planets at every stage of their devotion. This mode is held in great esteem among the Hindus at all prayers and religious exercises; they say, the adept in it has the power of flying; he never falls sick, is exempt from death, and from hunger and thirst; it is stated in the Ramzsitán of the Persian, that by means of this power Kái Khusro is still alive. The Sipásían and the historians relate, that whoever carries this process to perfection, rises above death; as long as he remains in the body, he can put it off and be again reunited to it; he never suffers from sickness, and is fit for all business. They say that Kaí Khusró, when he had acquired perfection in this devotion, felt his heart estranged from existence in this world; he chose retirement from men, and having separated from this body, he associated with the incorporeal beings, and found eternal life. The Hindus hold that, whenever a man has perfected himself in this act, Brahma, Vichnu, and Mahadéva have no command over him, but he rules over them. According to a great number of the Hindus, it is this perfection which is personified in the three deities, namely, Brahma, Vichnu, and Mahadéva; and it is the belief of many, that whoever becomes master of this process of devotion, coalesces with God himself. Much has been said and written upon this subject by the Hindus and by the Persians. The Sipásíans have a book entitled Sányal, which contains a great deal on this subject, and there exists no better book about it. Other writings are those of Zardúsht, as well as the Sarud i-mastan, and the like, in great numbers, which I have seen. Among the Hindus similar works abound, such as that composed by Atmá Ráma, a Yogí, who is known under the name of Bahet Barváng, and the book of Gorakh Singh, which has been composed by Gorakhnath, and that of Ambaret Kant. The author of the Dabistán says: “I saw Ambaret Kant, who has also translated his work into Persian, under the title Huz ul Hayat. Therein are the sayings of Gorakhnath, supposed to proceed from the prophet Khizar, and Machinder Yónas; but these speeches, pursuant to Ambarat Kant, are not original; they are in fact those of Gorakhnath; as, according to the Yogís, Brahma came and went some hundred thousand times, but Gorakhnath remained.” Relatively to the Yoga, this book gives no further explanation.

Balik Nátha, they say, a penitent, was of royal extraction, and attained great perfection in the Yoga; he restrained his breath during one week, and after having passed one hundred and twenty years of his life, he had not lost his strength. I have heard from the Mobéd Hushíar, the author of several books, that in the year 1028 of the Hejira (1618 A. D.), he brought me to him, and requested him to bless me; Balik nath pronounced then upon me: “This boy shall acquire the knowledge of God.”

Serud nath, descending from Humayún, was of a noble origin. Having in his youth attained to the mastership of that sect, he could restrain his breath for two days. In the year 1048 of the Hejira (1638 A. D.), the author of this work saw him in Lahore.

Sanjá náth, of the sect of Ayí, was a man accomplished in restraining the breath; the people numbered him among the saints, and said, that seven hundred years of his life had elapsed without his hair having yet become white: he was, in the last mentioned year, seen in Lahore.

Súraj nath made great proficiencyin mastering the breath; for several years, he has chosen his retirement in Pesháver, and is occupied with his own concern. The people think his age scarce less than that just before stated. The writer of this work visited him in the year 1055 of the Hejira (1645 A.D.), and saw several of the Yogies, an account of whom cannot find place in this book.

It is an established custom among the Yogís that, when malady overpowers them, they bury themselves alive. They are wont also, with open eyes, to force their looks towards the middle of their eyebrows, until so looking they perceive the figure of a man; if this should appear without hands, feet, or any member, for each case they have determined that the boundaries of their existence would be within so many years, months, or days. When they see the figure without a head, they know that there certainly remains very little of their life; on that account, having seen the prognostic, they bury themselves. However the Jnánís of India hold this figure to be an illusion, and an appearance without a trace of reality.

As the Sanyásis are also pious men, I will join an account of them to that of the Yogís. The Sanyásis make choice of abnegation and solitude; they renounce all bodily enjoyments; some, in order that they may not be invested with another body, and migrate from body to body; a great number, in order to go to heaven; and a multitude, in order to acquire dominion, that is, to become kings, or very rich men. When a man becomes a Sanyási, he must give up all desire to return again into the world. They are distinguished by names, and divided into ten classes, namely: Ban, Áran, Tírthah, Áshram, Kar, Parbatah, Sákar, Bhárthy, Perí, and Sarsatí. They are frequently holy men, and abstain from eating flesh, and renounce all intercourse with women. This class follow the dictates of Datáteri, whom they also venerate as a deity, and say that he is an incarnation of Naráyan, and in the retaining of breath attained to such a degree that he is exempted from death. When he came into the presence of Gorakhnath, who is the chief of the Yogís, and according to the opinion of the Sanyásis, an incarnation of Mahádéo, Datáterí, for the sake of trial, smote Gorakhnath on the head, who took the appearance of iron. Datáteri told him: “Thou hast not done well; there is no striking iron.” When Gorakhnath himself bade him to combat, Datáteri glided off from the body, in the same manner as water glides off, and reunited safely again. In this sense Śabur Mashedi says:

Afterwards, Gorakhnath disappeared in the water; Datáteri, having found and recognised him in the shape of a frog, brought him forth. When Datáteri concealed himself in the water, Gorakhnath, in spite of all his searching, could not succeed in discovering him, because he was mixed with the water, and water cannot be distinguished from water. Mirzá Baki Alí says:

Another says:

There are two classes of Sanyásis: the one, the Dandaheri,¹ do not wear long hair, and are attached to the precepts and regulations of the smriti, or of the law: the second are the Avadhútas;¹ they are like the other class; they wear the zunar, and drink water mixed with ashes; but, contrary to the Dandahar, they let their hair grow so that it becomes like ropes, and this they call juta;² they do not bathe every day, and rub their head and body with ashes, which they call bhabút;³ at the time of death, the two classes, having tied the body in a bag full of salt, throw it into the water, where, by its weight and that attached to it, it remains a few days sunk in the bottom, until they bury it in the earth.

The head of the second class is Sankara acharya; Saha dèva, the rája of Kachmir, who in the year 750 of the Hejira (1349 A. D.) pulled off the garment of the world, chose him for his teacher. Sankara acharya was a learned Brahman, of a very independent mind; the Hindus say that when the learned did not understand the Vedanta-śastra, Mahádéva, having incarnated himself, appeared in the shape of Sankara acharya, for the purpose of interpreting the Vedanta doctrine, upon which subject many books have been written. Sastra⁴ signifies, in the Sankrit language, “science,” and Véda, the “heavenly book,” as has been said; anta,¹ is “end, the accomplishment;” that is, “the accomplishment of the intended object;” and the intent of the Veda is the knowledge of God and of one's self. On that account this science, which consists in the knowledge of the union of God, as it is to be derived from the text of the Veda, has been entitled Veda-anta, “the accomplishment of the Veda.” Sankara acharya was a Jnáni, “a saint, a divine,” professing the unity of God; his speeches and actions became the code of the Jnánis.

One of these, called Chatúr Vapah, belongs to the class of the Dandahars; he descends from the Brahmans of Guzerat, whom they call Nága-Brahmans; his father, of the order of jewellers, enjoyed great consideration and opulence. Chatúr Vapah, having acquired great perfection in the worship of God, abandoned wife, father, mother, and children; and chose the condition of a Sanyási; he devoted himself to the practice of restraining the breath, and at last attained great reputation, but never relaxed in his religious austerity; he ate no more than three handsful; they say that sometimes he tasted nothing but salt, and contented himself with three pinches of it; the nature of his manners is so well known among the Sanyásis, that it is not required to say more of it in this book. They say besides that, on account of his perseverance in the beforesaid practice, and on hearing the voice of God, a sound similar to that of a harp issued from his veins. A Durvish, native of Persia, gave the following information: “In the year 1045 of the Hejira (1635 A. D.), one night Chatur Vapah came to me, and said: ‘Rise, that we may take a walk together;’ I went with him and arrived at a deep water. Chatur Vapah, having put his feet upon the surface of the water, walked upon it so as not to raise a sprinkling; he then called me; going along the border of the pond, I joined him, who until my arrival awaited me upon an elevated block of stone which was near the pond. When I had seated myself near him, he pointed to the block, and said: ‘Dost thou guess whose work this is?’ Having considered the bulk of the stone, which was not less than ten cubits in length, I was struck with astonishment, and said: ‘This may be the work of a deity.’ Chatur Vapah replied: ‘One of my friends dwelt here, and endeavored to shape this block into his habitation, and having brought the huge stone upon his shoulder from the high mountain, began to work it. The people, astonished at the bulk of the stone, sat down at night in a lurking-place, so that they saw the Sanyásí with the great stone on his shoulder. On that account they represented to him: What is the reason of undergoing such labour? Command, and we will bring the stone down from the mountain, and shape it right, provided the block be not too large. The Sanyási got angry, and left the village.’ Chatúr Vapah afterwards added: ‘Rise, and let us go to see him:’ we went there. Sitting cross-legged, he was occupied with himself. Chatúr Vapah said to him: ‘This Durvish is my friend; call the musician.’ He replied: ‘Raise thou the light up.’ At these words, Chatur Vapah directed his looks to the field, and an immense torch burst forth, lighted from the mysterious region, and threw its scattered refulgence wide about, and the sound of many musical instruments came upon the ear. At day-break we took leave of him, and returned by the road which we came to our resting place.” Khája Hafiz says right:

The Hakim Kamrán of Shíraz says: “We were in Benares with Chatúr Vapah. One of the principal Muselmans who visited him asked him: ‘What dost thou say of the truth of our prophet?’ He answered: ‘You say that he is a legate of God, and a leader of the way to the people to which the King of truth has sent him; but it is not becoming for those who are companions of the Monarch of the world to take orders from him.’” The inhabitant of heaven, Nuraddin Jehangír (may the light of God illume his grave!) believed and placed a suitable confidence in him. Abdár rahim of the Khánkhan prostrated himself before him. In the year 1033 of the Hejira (1623 A. D.), the author of this work, then in his infancy, came with his friends and relations from Patna to the capital, Akbár abad, and was brought in the arms of the Mobéd Hushíar, the odor of whose excellent qualities is diffused about, to Chatur Vapah. The pious man rejoiced at it, and bestowed his blessing on me, the writer of this work; he taught me the mantra of Súrya, that is, of the sun; he then enjoined Ganéśa-man, one of his disciples who were present on this day, that he should remain with me until the age of manhood, when I should be able to manage my affairs myself. Ganéśa-man remained attached to me: he was a pupil of Chatur Vapah, and practised the restraining of the breath assiduously. The Mobéd Hushíar says, he once saw him when, sitting cross-legged, he restrained his breath so that his belly, filled with wind, extended beyond his knees. The Gosáin Chatur Vapah travelled to the everlasting kingdom in the year 1047 of the Hejira (1637 A. D.).

The author of this book saw, in the year 1053 of the Hejira (1643 A. D.), Kalían Bharatí in Karitpúr in the Kohistan of the Panjab, which was the country of the rája Tarachandra. Kalían was a religious man, and kept his breath for two watches, or six hours. The Bháratís are a class of Sanyásis. From Ferzánah Khushí, who is a pious man of the Yezdanían, was received the information, that Kalíán Bhárati used to drink, first, oil of lamps, and then milk, both which he emitted again in such a manner that the color of each was preserved, and no mixture had taken place. Kalin Bhárati always praised Persia; the author of this work told him: “You have no connection in India; you should go there.” He answered: “I went to Iran, but when I saw the king of the country, Shah Abas Ibne Sultan,¹ who ought to be a servant of God, I found him to be full of years, and although highly intelligent, yet merciless, a shedder of blood, covetous, a word-breaker, a friend to jesting, and admirer of buffoonery. In his country it was promulgated that wherever a boy or girl gifted with beauty could be found, they should be brought before the king. The Sufís of the tribe Kazelbásh brought boys and girls to the king, that he might indulge himself in any shameful act of his liking. I asked myself whether, if such a behaviour were conformable to their religion, I could remain in this town? When I inquired about it from their learned men, they denied it. I further asked, whether the king approves of such deeds? They said: ‘These are deeds, customary with men of our faith. I then again said to myself: the king is the substitute of God; if he himself goes astray, is not firm in his faith, and does not disavow any part of this religion, then it is not advisable to remain in this town.” Kalin Bharati also said: “I cannot bear seeing a man who is not firm in his faith; one who professes no religion at all is, at least, his own guide; the professor of any faith who does what he says, and is fixed in it, deserves not to be blamed.”

The writer of this book found, in the year 1048 of the Hejira (1638 A. D.), Aisha Girda, in Kashmir. Ferzanah Khushí says, that he kept his breath during three watches, or nine hours, and he found Maden Kir equal to him. This was a man skilled in all sorts of magic and sleight of hand: whenever well disposed, he scattered bread and salt about, brought milk forth from bones, cut bones in two with a hair, and passed birds' eggs through the narrow neck of a bottle, and exhibited such like tricks.

Other Sanyásis remain twelve years standing upon one leg, and this class is called Thávésar.¹ Those who keep continual silence are called Máunínas.² Many other, like these, are mentioned in Hindu books, which the author of this work perused, but has no room for describing them all in these pages; some of this class are men of consideration and opulence, and are escorted by files of elephants; they have carriages, fine apparel, courtiers, servants, on foot and horseback.

SECTION THE SEVENTH DESCRIBES THE TENETS OF THE SÁKTÍAN. — The belief of this sect is as follows: Síva, that is Mahádeva, who in their opinion with little exception is the highest of the deities, and the greatest of the spirits, has a spouse whom they call Máyá saktí;¹ this spouse shows first one color, and then another, that is, something else than what really exists: for instance, water like wine. This spiritual and material principle has three natures and three qualities, namely: rajas,² that is, “dominion and desire;” sattva,³ which is “rectitude and wisdom, and the power to control the senses, not to be subject to them;” and tamas,⁴ or “violence, passion, besides eating, gluttony, and sleeping.” With the Hindus, Brahma, Vichnu, and Mahadeva are personified as proceeding from these three conditions,⁵ or as the powers of the three qualities mentioned. This Máyá is the maker of the productions of this world and of its inhabitants, and the creator of the spirits and of the bodies; the universe and its contents are born from her: from respect of the said productions and of the mentioned effects, she is entitled Jagat-ambá,¹ or “mother of the universe;” non-entity finds no access to this creator; the garment of perishableness does not sit right upon the body of this fascinating empress, the dust of nothingness does not move round the circle of her dominion; the real beings of heaven, and the accidental creations of the nether world, are equally enamoured and intoxicated of desire before her; bound by these ties of deceit in this revolving world, whoever rebels feels the desire of mukt, that is, of emancipation, independence, and happiness; nevertheless, from carelessness, he pays obedience and worship to this world-deceiving queen, and never abandons the path of adoration of this bewitching lady. This goddess, that is the spiritual principle, exists in all living beings in six circles, which they call shat chakras,² as the fibres in the stalk of a water-lily, in which there are six divisions: 1. the Muládhára, or “the sitting-place;” 2. the Manipúram , that is, “the navel;” 3. the Swadhishtanam,³ “the firm place, and which commands the upper region of the navel;” 4. Hrid,⁴ or “the heart;” 5. Sáda,¹ that is, “the purified mansion and the place of purification,” and this proceeds from the upmost part of the breast; 6. Agni tchakra,² or “the circle of the fire,” and this is that of the eye-brows. These are the six circles, and above them is Indra, that is the window of life, and the passage of the soul, which is the top and middle of the head; and in that place is the flower of the back of one thousand leaves: this is the residence of the glorious divinity, that is, of the world-deceiving queen, and in this beautiful site reposes her origin. With the splendour of one hundred thousand world-illumi-nating suns, she wears, at the time of rising, manifold odoriferous herbs and various flowers upon her head and around her neck: her resplendent body is penetrated with perfumes of various precious ingredients, such as musk, safran, sandal and amber, and bedecked with magnificent garments: in this manner, as was just described, she is to be represented. The worship of her form and appearance, the adoration and submission, ought to be internal and true; and the exterior veneration, to be paid before her image; moreover, all that has been divided into five sections and explained in the Yoga śastra, is to be performed with assiduity. The interior worship consists in representing her image, and in keeping her remembrance every where; the possessor of such an imaginative faculty and devotedness is called bhakta,¹ that is, “a possessor of gladness and of the mansion of perfect delight, and of mukt, or ‘liberation to be enjoyed in this mansion of a permanent happy existence.” The mode of this worship is contained in the Agama,² and the whole sect conform themselves to it. With them, the power of Mahadeva's wife, who is Bhávání, surpasses that of the husband. The zealous of this sect worship the Síva-linga, although other Hindus also venerate it. Linga³ is called the virile organ, and they say on behalf of this worship that, as men and all living beings derive their existence from it, adoration is duly bestowed on it. As the linga of Mahadeva, so do they venerate the bhaga,⁴ that is, the female organ. A man very familiar with them gave the information that, according to their belief, the high altar, or principal place in a mosque of the Muselmans, is an emblem of the bhaga. Another man among them said that, as the just-named place emblems the bhaga, the minar, or turret of the mosque represents the linga: on which account both are found together. In many places and among a great number of the Hindus, this worship exists: a great many follow the Agama, in which wine drinking is approved, and if, instead of a common cup, a man's skull (which they call kapála¹) be used, the beverage is much more agreeable. They hold the killing of all animals, even of man, to be permitted, and call it bala.² At night they go to the places which they call śmaśána,³ and where the dead bodies are burnt; there they intoxicate themselves, eat the flesh of the corpses burnt, and copulate before the eyes of others with women, which they name śakti púja:⁴ and if the devoted woman be that of another, the good work is so much the more valuable, and it is certain that they offer their wives to each other; the disciples bring their wives and daughters to their preceptor; they unite with their mothers, sisters, paternal and maternal aunts, which is against the custom of the Hindus, who do not take daughters of their near relations. The author of this work saw one of the learned men of this sect, who read to him a book of modern composition upon their customs, and therein was stated that it is permitted to mix with every woman except one's daughter. This man began to abuse the work, saying that the text was contrary to the old customs of this class, and that no such thing is to be found in the ancient books, and declared it at last to be a mistake of the copyist. They say that the woman exists for the sake of being desired; she may be a mother or a daughter. In their opinion, there is no enjoyment higher that that of love; the Hindus call it kámada;¹ and say that, when a woman and a man are in close conversation, whoever disturbs them is worthy of God's malediction, because they both therein share a state of happiness. The Agama favors both sexes equally, and makes no distinction between women; they may belong to whomsoever; men and women compose equally humankind, and whatever they bring forth makes part of it. This sect hold women in great esteem, and call them śaktis (powers); and to ill treat a śakti, that is, a woman, is held a crime. The high and low value the Lulís (public girls) very high, and call them deva kanya,² “daughters of the gods.”

Among them, it is a meritorious act to sacrifice a man, which they call naramédha;¹ then the gómédha ,² or sacrifice of a cow; further, the asvaméda.³ and finally, any other animal. When they perform a sacrificial ceremony, which they call Kála-dek (kaladéya ), they unite the blood of as many animals as possible in a large vase, and place therein the man whom they bring over to their creed, and they drink with him from that blood. Whenever the worship of a god, or of the wife of a god is performed, the ceremony is called ishtam,⁴ and the master of the ceremony ishta. The creed of this sect is, that any god or wife of a god may be worshipped in two ways: the one is called bhadram,⁵ which consists in abstaining from shedding blood, and in being pure; the other, termed vakam,⁶ which admits spilling blood, commerce with women, and neglect of purity; but they think this second preferable, and say that each deity, male or female, has a form under which he or she is to be represented; but that the worship of a female divinity affords a greater recompense. When they have an intimate connection with their own or another's wife, they behold in her the image of the goddess, and think to personate the god, her husband, and at this time they sing a prescribed song, which to entune at the very moment of the closest junction, they believe to be most recommendable. There is a deity whose praise they sing with unwashed hands;¹ and another whom they worship with the mark of their cast drawn with dirt on their forehead. Some of thesegoddesses are by them called “queens,” and others “servants;” and the worshipper of a woman is also termed “servant.”

The author of this work saw a man who, singing the customary song, sat upon a corpse which he kept unburied until it came to a state of dissolution, and then ate the flesh of it; this act they hold extremely meritorious. They say that the desires of this and of the other world attain their accomplishment by means of the worship of a god or of a goddess. The followers of this sect send their barren wives, in order that they may become pregnant, to the performers of such acts, and these men use the women before the eyes of their husbands: whoever does not send his wife to his master, renders in their opinion the purity of his faith very doubtful.

The Gossain Tara lochana, a Brahman, was of this sect, and devoted to the worship of Káli, a female deity. Having gone to Kachmir in the year 1048 of the Hejira (1638 A. D.), he practised pious austerity; at last, as is usual, he chose a concubine, for which, they say, five things are requisite: fish, wine, the wife of another man, flesh (if human flesh so much the better) and a mantra, that is, a song. The Hindus used to distinguish fish from flesh. Finally, having accomplished the act of a Gosain, Tara lochana became the friend of Ahsen Ulla, named Zafer Khán ibne Khájá, Abul hasen Taramzi, who was the governor of Kachmir: this took place by the interest of the confidential servants of the lord's house, who were well disposed to be directed by a perfect Gósain. The said lord wished Taralochana to procure him victory over the Tibetans; the Gosain promised it to him, provided he should conform himself to his directions: Zafer Khan consented to it, and a convention was concluded between them. Tara lochana said: “Appoint a great number of Lúlían who are never to separate from me, because in our religion the intercourse with these is preferable to that with other women, on which account they are entitled Déva-Kanyá, ‘the daughters of the gods;’ my meal must never be destitute of wine and other intoxicating liquors; to begin, let a sheep be killed for me, and the necessaries and materials of repast be prepared.” Zafer Khan did all the Gosain demanded; when he made his expedition to Tibet, he obtained a remarkable victory, and returned triumphant. At last, a disagreement took place between the Gosain and Zafer Khan; the former quitted the latter, who soon after, on account of a dispute between the Sonní and the Shiâh of Kachmir, lost his consideration, and being obliged to retire, went to Kabul; there Muhammed Tafer, one of his relations, gave him some fatal stabs with a poniard, in consequence of which he lay sick for some time. Soon after he lost his office and property, and remained long in Lahore without a situation. The author of this book saw in the year 1055 of the Hejira (1645 A. D.) in Gujerat, a district of the Panjab, Tara lochana, who told him “It was on account of his difference with me that so great a misfortune befel Zafer Khan.” Urfi of Shiraz says:

Shédosh, the son of Anosh declared: that, according to the explainers of the law, there must be observed in any pursuit a due relation and correspondence to the intended purpose: further, in the pursuit of a virtuous spirit, sanctity and purity are required; but in the pursuit of a base spirit, nothing of purity enters, and may be dispensed with. This subject has been treated in the second section of the work thereupon.

The writer of this book saw in the same year, and in the place beforesaid of Guzerat, a man called Mahadéo, who at night was always sitting upon a dead body. I also saw Sadánand, of the same sect, who said to one of his disciples: “I wish to perform a rite, called the worship of the hair.” The disciple brought his own daughter, and Sadánanda gazed at her hair, kissed her face, and in that way enjoyed her before the eyes of her father. I saw besides a person who brought his wife to him, saying: “I have no son in my house.” It is the belief of this class that, if in such a manner any one has intercourse with a barren woman, she obtains whatever she desires; on that account, some of the women, at the moment of intimate junction, demand from the perfect man the gift of mukt, that is, union with God Almighty, and emancipation from this body. It was for that reason, that Sadánanda used the woman before the eyes of her husband. One day, Sadánanda sat in a burying place, naked, with one of his friends, and drank wine, when one of the orthodox Brahmans passed that way, and saw these men. The disciples said: “This Brahman will tell the people what he saw, and expose us to ridicule.” Sadánanda replied: “It does not matter.” When the Brahman came home, he died.

When in the year 1059 of the Hejira (1649 A. D.) the author of this work happened to be in the district of Kalinga, he saw in every village of this country the image of a god, or of a spirit called by some particular name, and each of these spirits is supposed to be the author of some sickness or misfortune, for the removing of which they offer their prayers to him. One of these spirits is Anamberam ; and when a person gets a pimple, he brings an animal, commonly a domestic bird, to the chapel, and sacrifices it. In the work Khálasa al hayat, “the essence of life,” composed by Mulla Ahmed Tatvi, is stated, that upon the sepulchre of Asefnívas,¹ a sage of Greece, they used to sacrifice a bird, and they say that, in the book which treats of the ceremonies of pilgrimage to the before-named deities, three kinds of sacrifices are enumerated: agreeable perfumes, sweet cakes, and beverages; besides Mulla Ahmed Tatvi mentions in his work just before quoted, that Herámes (that is Idris)² has established fumigations and wine of grapes for the use of sacrifices.

Among the great idols of the country of Kaling is Gang-Durgá.¹ They say, Ramachandra déo, one of their great Rájas, descendant of the celebrated family of Kaśyapa, ruled in Orissa. This Rája, having called a goldsmith, gave him the mass of gold which he demanded for making an image of Durga. The goldsmith, having carried the gold home, intended to form the goddess of copper and to purloin the gold, thinking that, as to break into pieces an idol is not permitted among the Hindus, he could keep the gold without fear of discovery. With this project he went to sleep. When he awoke, he saw that one half of the gold remained on the spot, and that the other half was formed into the image of Durgá; having carried this with the remaining gold to Ramachandra déo, and told the story, the Rája gave him the residue of gold, and carried the idol, in his house and in his travels, constantly with him. They say that, after the death of Kaśyapa the Great, Makandéo assembled under his sceptre the nations of this country, and that Vichnunath déo Sukra conquered the town Sri Kakul,² from the Rája Nanda. Ramchandra déo moved his army towards Sri Kakul, and took the fort; Vichnu-náth, being informed of it, marched against him; Ramchandra déo, unable to resist his force, fled; Ganga Durga was by her guardians thrown away in a village, from whence she fell into the hands of a Brahman, who flung her into the barn of a villager. This man, having taken her up, carried her to his house. The goddess appeared to him in a dream, and said: “Offer me in sacrifice thy eldest son, and I will make thee Rája.” After a certain time, the villager told this secret to Vishnu-náth déo, who, having taken the idol from him, gave him a horse ornamented with gold, and a magnificent dress, and carried the goddess to Naránya púr, his residence. As she demanded from him also the sacrifice of a man, Vichnu-náth déo killed every year one of the thieves and like sorts of men before her altar. After the death of Vichnu náth déo, his sons did the same. When Vikramajet déo, who descended from Vichna nath déo, was killed, and the country disturbed by insurrections, then Dasventráu, who was one of the grand-children of Vichnu-náth déo, having taken up Durga, fled from fear of the army, commanded by Jalil ul Khader Tulají Khan Bég, to Márkúl. Bhúpati, the Rája of Márkul, being also afraid of the attack of the famous general, sent him the goddess Durga, on Monday, the ninth day of the month Rabish ul avel, of the year 1062 of the Hejira (September, 1651, A. D.). The idol was of gold, in the form of a female, with limbs very well proportioned, four arms, in two of her right hands carrying a three-pointed pike, which the Hindus call Trisúla,¹ and with which the goddess was striking Mahisha Asura, a demon under the form of a buffalo; he was beneath her right foot; in another hand she had a white ball, and in the fourth, the chakra, or discus, which is a circular weapon peculiar to the Hindus; under her left foot was a lion, and beneath him a throne. When they weighed the image, they found it equal to four panchiri, measure of the Dekhan. Even now, they sacrifice in every village of the Kohistan of Nanda-púr, and country adjacent, a man of good family.

Another idol, called Mávelí,² is in the town of Bister.³ The belief of the people there is that, when an hostile army comes to attack them, the divinity, under the form of a woman selling vegetables, goes into the camp of the enemy, and whoever eats what she offers, dies; and during the night she appears like one of the public girls, and whoever finds her charming, and calls her, meets with death. They relate many strange and wonderful things about her. When in the year of the Hejira 1069, A. D, 1658-9, the famous general Tavaljí Khan Beg besieged and took the fort Kot Bahar, which is stronger than the fort of Bister, there died so many men and beasts of various maladies and the particular effects of climate, that their number exceeds all computation; and this the inhabitants of the fort of Bister attributed to the power of the goddess.

There is another class of followers of Síva, that is, of Sáktían, whose creed is quite different from that just before stated: they never have intercourse with the wife of another; they drink no wine. The adorers of Síva are obliged to drink wine in the Síva-ratra,¹ which is a sacred night: because it is written in their books that they ought then to fill a cup with wine and to drink it; as, according to the rule of this sect, it is not a matter of choice to drink wine; many who cannot get it, having procured a draught of syrup, mix a little of a fermented liquor with it to render it like wine, and take it for such, calling it pána.²

Sri Kanta, a Kachmirian, is conversant with many sciences of the Hindus; he knows the sástras, that is, the sástras of the Pandits, namely, the Smríti sastra,¹ or “the written law;” the Kavi-sástra ,² “poetics;” the Tarka-sástra,³ “logic and dialectics;” the Váidyá vidyá,⁴ “the medical science;” the Jyótisha,⁵ “astronomy;” and the Pátanjala,⁶ that is, the restraining of the breath; he knows besides very well the Vedanta, or metaphysics, etc. In the year 1049 of the Hejira (1639 A. D.) the author of this book saw him in Kachmir; he is one of the saints of the Hindus. Sri Kant was invested by the inhabitant of heaven, Núr-ed-din Mahommed Jehangír Pádshah, with the dignity of a judge of the Hindus, in order that they may be tranquillised, and in every concern have nothing to demand from the Muselmans: as it has been established in the code of Akbar, that the tribes of mankind, high and low, with the existing diversity of creeds and difference of customs, which are all under the trust of a beneficent lord, ought to dwell in the shade of protection of a just king, and persevere in the performance of their worship and the exigencies of their devotion, so that, by the authority derived from the chiefs, the sons of the age may not stretch the hand of oppression over the condition of the people.

The belief of the Hindus is as follows: all the tírths,¹ that is, “places of pilgrimage,” which are in the world are in imitation of the fixed model Haratírth , which is in Kachmir; for, after having visited the holy place of Kachmir, there is no desire to see that of any other country; and they call it the great place of pilgrimage, likewise prayága,² which is celebrated at Máhábád; there are Shah abad ed-din púr, and Gangavara, Lárasún, and Kisâlíhazra. There are many miraculous things in Kachmir; one of them is Sandebár, and they relate: In ancient times, a holy Brahman dwelt in a cavern of the mountain, where he devoted himself to the worship of the Almighty God. Once every year, he went to the Ganges to bathe. After having passed several years in that way, Gangá said to the Brahman: “Thou measurest always such a length of road, on which thou dost set aside the worship of God: my convention with thee is this: that, when the sun reaches the constellation of the Bull, I will three times a-day come to thy resting-place.” From this time, when the great luminary throws his effulgence towards the constellation of the Bull, the water of the river springs up boiling from the basin of the fountain, which is near the place of his devotion. Sundeberari, in the cavern of the mountain, became celebrated: it is a square basin, and has on its eastern wall an open cavity, from which, as well as from several other vents and holes in the sides of the basin, the water springs up. However steadfastly one may look, the bottom cannot be discovered. And in the middle of the eastern side, there are seven holes, which the people of Kachmir call Saptarshi,¹ “the seven Rishis;” on the northern side is an issue, which they call dama bhaváni;² when the world-illuminating sun begins to enter the constellation of the Bull, the water appears there in the following manner: it springs up first from the large cavity, then from the Saptarshi: so the Hindus call seven rakshasas, and give their name to the constellation of the Great Bear. Further, the water comes up from the dama bhaváni, that is “the mansion of Bhaváni, the wife of Mahadéo.” When the cavity is filled, then the water, passing over the borders, runs out; the Sanyásis and other Hindus, who had come from distant places, throw themselves into it, and the people who find no room, carry water from it. Afterwards, the ebullition declines in such a manner, that there remains not the least trace of the water. In this month the water boils up three times a-day, namely, in the morning, at mid-day, and in the afternoon, at the hour of prayer. After the lapse of this month, no more water is seen, until the sun enters again into the sign of the Bull.

The historians of the times know Sandeberarí among the wonders described by the ancient learned men of Kachmir. The ignorant among the Muselmans of Kachmir say, that Sandeberari is the well of Abu Ali, and believe it to be the work of shaikh Arráis; the truth is, that Hajet ul hak never came to Kachmir: as it is evident from the concurring testimony of history.

HISTORY OF THE ILLUSTRIOUS SHAIKH ABU ALI HUSSAIN, THE SON OF ABDULLAH SINA (GOD BLESS HIS GRAVE!)² — The father of Abu Alí was a native of the environs of Balkh, and his mother was Sitára. Abu Alí was born in the year 333 of the Hejira (944 A. D.)¹ When he had attained his eighteenth year, he was conversant with all the liberal sciences. They relate, that Amír Nuh, the son of Manzur Sámáni,² in a grave malady, when the doctors knew no remedy, was restored to health by the salutary power of the songs of Abu Ali. When the Sámánían were in distress, he directed himself towards Khórasan, the king of which country, Alí, the son of Mámun Massar, received Abu Ali with perfect favour. When Abu Ali was accused before the Sultan Mahmud Sabak tegín,¹ of being opposed to the religion and creed of the ancient wise men, and when the Sultan showed a disposition to apprehend him, the Shaikh was alarmed and fled to Abyúverd; the satellites of the Sultan followed him with pictures and descriptions of his person, which were well drawn, and sent by the Sultan to all parts of the kingdom, in order that the magistrates and head men of office, by means of this picture might bring the fugitive before the Sultan. The Shaikh, informed of it, fled towards Jorjan (Georgia). By means of the remedies of the Shaikh, many sick were cured. Shamsen ul mâlí Kábús, the son of Vashamger,² had a nephew on his sister's side on a sick-bed, all the remedies applied by the physicians proved useless; by order of Kabus, they brought the Shaikh to the pillow of the sick; but, in spite of all his cares and observations, the learned physician could not discover the cause of his illness. The Shaikh said to himself: “This young man may be in love, and from exceeding pudicity keep his secret unclosed.” On that account he ordered the names of all the places and towns to be written, and one after another to be read before the patient, whilst the Shaikh held his finger upon the pulse of the young man. When they pronounced the name of the abode of the beloved, the motion of the pulse of the enamoured was perceptible; the Shaikh ordered also the names of all the private houses to be read; at that of the object of his desires, the pulse of the desirous became disturbed; moreover they began to read the names of the inhabitants of the houses; when they arrived at that of his idol, the pulse of the adorer again beat higher. Mazheri of Kashmir says:

Thus, the perfect science of Abu Alí found the true remedy: he said to one of the head men near Shams ul mâlí: “This young man is in love with such a girl, in such a house, and there is no remedy but the gratification of his desire.” After trial, the truth of these words was found.¹

When the Umras and the ministers of state withdrew from the obedience of Kábus, whom they imprisoned, the Shaikh retired into the country. Some time after, he betook himself to Ráí.¹ Majed-dóulah Abu Táleb Rustam, the son of Fakher ed dóulah Dalímí, the Hakim (governor) of Rái,² showed him great regard and honor; the Shaikh restored Majed ud-dóulah from the malady of melancholy to good health.

When Shams ed-dóulah made war upon Helál,³ son of Bader, son of Hasnávíah, who came from the capital of the right faith (Mecca), he defeated the army of Bâghdad. The Shaikh went from Rái to Kazvín,⁴ and from thence to Hamdan.⁵ Shams ed-dóulah was cured of a colic by the remedies of the Shaikh, whom he then raised to the dignity of a Vizír. The chiefs of the army conspired against the life of Abu Ali; he fled, and remained concealed during forty days. Meanwhile, the malady of Shams ed-doulah returned; the Shaikh, having come forth from his place of concealment, delivered the Sultan from his illness, and was again raised to the Vizirat. After the death of Shams ed-doulah, the throne was filled by Bahá ed-dóulah, the son of Táj ed dóulah.¹ The Umrahs requested Abu Alí to accept the Vizírat, but he refused his consent. About this time, Aláded-dóulah, the son of Jâfer Kakyuah,² sent from Iśfahan an invitation to the venerable Shaikh to join him; but the Shaikh declined to come, and concealed himself in the house of Abu Táleb, a dealer in perfumes. Without the example of any other work before his eyes, he composed his work, entitled Shafá, “remedy,” treating the whole of physics and metaphysics.³

Tájed doulah, having assumed the name of Alaved-dóulah, kept the Shaikh, by this assumption, employed in a continual succession of affairs. When Alawed dóulah conquered the country of Tájed ud dóulah, he brought the Shaikh to Iśfahán.¹ Towards the end of his life, a disease of the bowels seized the Shaikh, and gained strength, on account of his active life in the service of Alawed dóulah, and of the expeditions of his enemies. The patient was carried in a covered chair. When Aladed-dóulah came to Hamdán, the Shaikh felt that nature had exhausted her strength, and could not resist the force of the malady; on that account, having desisted from applying any remedy, he took a bath, and having distributed his property in alms to the poor, the indigent, and the necessitous, he turned his mind to God and the elect of the divinity; at last, on a Friday, in the month of Ramzán, of the year 427 of the Hejira (1035 A. D.), he passed from this deceitful world to the residence of happiness.² A great man said:

The extraordinary and astonishing actions performed by Abu Alí have been described in the book about the application of remedies in several histories,¹ few of which are reproduced in these pages; and so much only with the intention to prove shortly to the candid reader, that Shaikh Abu Alí never came to Kachmir, about which intelligent and ingenious men in all countries agree.

SECTION THE EIGHTH: OF THE VICHNUIAN (VA ISHNAVAS) WORSHIPPERS OF VICHNU.—Vichnu, who, according to the belief of the followers of the Smriti, is a subordinate divinity, is held by the Vichnuian to be the preserver of all things. The Vedantían maintain him to possess the qualities of virtue and of order, and to be the lord of the five senses; not subject however to the said senses, nor to their influence in any way. According to the Vichnuían, he is the first cause and author of the universe; they believe him endowed with a body, like mankind; he has a wife. Brahma, a deity, is the creator of things; and Mahádéo, another divinity, the annihilator of beings; both are creators of Vichnu, and distinct from his holy being, because the path of union is closed between the creature and the creator; they say, that every body has a soul, but that the soul is not distinct from, but a part of, the body; the body has two forms, the male and female, and the creator and author of their being is the holy nature of Vichnu; the body is composed of five elements; men, conformably with their actions and works, are invested either with animal or human forms; the soul is always confined in the gaol of ignorance and in the fetters of avidity. Further, the spirits are divided according to three qualities, which are: 1. sattvam; 2. rájas; and 3. tamas: the explanation of these three qualities has been before given. The Satya (virtuous) tends towards mukt, that is, “emancipation;” for by the power of this laudable quality, he makes the bakhti, that is, “the worship of Vichnu,” his pursuit; and this bakhti raises him to the highest state, that is, to that of “emancipation;” according to the interpretation of this sect, mukt consists in this: that, after having left the sthúla sarira,¹ or “elementary body,” and the linga sarira,² that is, “the visional body,” which has fallen into a vision of appearances, and after having been transformed into the primitive shape, which is either male or female, one enters the Váikunt,¹ that is, “the heaven of beatitude of the Gods,” and the mansion of real life. Rájas, that is, the possessor of this quality, is liable to recompense or punishment; to the consequence of virtue or crime, according to an impartial appreciation of both. Now he holds the price of virtue, another time that of crime; and conformably to his merits or demerits, he migrates invested with a body, and for reward is associated with the blessed, or for punishment suffers witth the damned. Whoever does not, from the circle of the world, reach the shore of those who are united with salvation, he shall certainly never attain to the state of the desired emancipation. Tamas, that is, the possessor of this quality, is an adversary to mukt, and an enemy to liberation; his present and future condition is this: that, having left the sthúla saríra, that is, “his elemental body,” and the linga purusha,² or “his visional body,” and having returned to his primitive form, either male or female, he will be tormented in the world of darkness, which they call andhatamasa;¹ from this place of manifold torments he never returns. This is the substance of the creed of the worshippers of Vichnu, called Madhu Acháris.²

The belief of another sect of the Vichnavas, called Rámánandis,¹ is in substance as follows: the quality of Satwa tends towards the attainment of the high state of mukt, or “emancipation;” the way of acquiring it is, to lay aside all praises of another divinity; to abstain from the rites of any other sect; and to shun any other worship except that of the holy being of Vichnu, to whom alone all thoughts, all prayers, are to be directed, and whose remembrance is always to be kept. In the same manner as it is not permitted to a husband to desire the wife of another, in the same way they hold it wrong to think of any other deity but of Vichnu. The difference between the beforesaid and this sect is, that the former associates to the worship of Vichnu that of other angels, of the creatures, servants, and companions of this God, which they maintain as meritorious, and perform with magnificence; whilst the latter sect considers the other deities as deformed and hideous.

The characteristical mark of the Rámánandis is a triangle drawn upon their forehead;¹ they never eat their meal before persons of another sect. The Madhu Achárís² wear two short strokes of red clay near each other upon the forehead; they do not associate with persons of another creed, but they eat before Brahmans who are not of their own peruasion.

A third sect is that of the Harbayántís.³ They drink with Brahmans of another persuasion from the same cup, and wear a circle as a mark on their foreheads.

A fourth sect is that of the Rádhá-Vallabhis;¹ these are bound by nothing; they observe no fast on the eleventh day of the month; they deliver their wives to the disposition of their preceptors and masters, and hold this praiseworthy.

In Hindostan it is known that whoever abstains from eating meat and hurting living animals, is esteemed a Vaishnava, without regard to the doctrine beforesaid. Some of them take the name of Rama, who is also a manifestation of Vichnu; others choose the title of Kishen (Krichna), another incarnation of Vichnu. The reputation of continence and purity prevails in favor of those who are called after Rama; whilst those who take their title from Krishna are ill-famed for sensuality and libidinousness. It happened one day that a worshipper of Rama met with an adorer of Krishna; the former repeated perpetually “Ram, Ram;” the latter was occupied with the praise of Krichna, to whom the worshipper of Rama said: “Why dost thou repeat without end the name of a man who was devoted to sensuality, the name of Krichna?” He answered: “Because this name is better than that of a man who knew not even how to be certain of the honor of one woman.” This was said in allusion to Râma's having banished his wife, named Sitâ, at the end of the fire-ordeal which she underwent to prove her purity.¹ Some of the pious of this sect eat no sort of turnips or carrots which in eating, by taste or color, may remind of flesh. The writer of this work heard from Hansa rádja, a Brahman, that it is written in ancient books of this class, that Brahmans used to fly in the air and to walk upon the water, when, on account of having polluted their lips by eating flesh, they lost this power. As the Vairágis, too, profess to be Váishnavas, I will treat of them in the following article.

OF THE VAIRÁGIS.—Virág is in the dictionary interpreted “aspiring.”¹ This sect renounces the world; their liturgy is in verse, and comprehends the worship of Vichnu and his incarnations, as Rama, Krichna, and the like, and these verses they call Vichnu padam. They make pilgrimages to the holy places dedicated to Vichnu, and wear around their necks rosaries of tutasí,² which they call malá-tulasí. Tulasí is an Indian shrub. Whoever among the Hindus, Muselmans, or others, wishes, is received into their religion; none are rejected, but, on the contrary, all are invited. It is said that some Muselmans also worship Vichnu, because in “Bismilla,” they confound Bisem with Bishen (or Vichnu), and most of them agree about the purity and infinity of Vichnu's being; in truth, they think he is incorporeal; the spirits proceed like rays from the light of his being, and all bodies from the shadow of his existence; but they say that when he wills he shows himself, as it happened, with four arms, and they agree about his having manifested himself in ten incarnations. They abstain from eating flesh. They are divided into four classes: Rámánujas, Nimánujas, Madhuacháris, and Radha Vallabhis, as before said:¹ these four classes they call chár sampardá (sampradáya ).¹

Kabir,² a weaver by birth, celebrated among those Hindus who professed their belief in the unity of God, was a Váiragi. They say that, at the time when he was in search of a spiritual guide, he visited the best of the Muselmans and Hindus, but did not find what he sought. At last, somebody gave him direction to an old man of bright genius, the Brahman Rámánanda. This sage never saw the face of a Muselman, nor of any other religionist. Kabir, knowing that Rámánand would not converse with a weaver, dug a hole upon the accustomed road of the Brahman, and placed himself there in. Towards the night Rámánand used to go to bathe on the border of a river, and at the time when, to wash his body and purify his soul with the water of sanctity, he bent his steps towards a house of prayer, he arrived on the border of the hole made by Kabir, who, coming forth, clasped the feet of Rámánanda. As the Brahman harboured in his mind no other thought but that of God the highest, under the name of Rámá, he called out: “Rám!” When Kabir heard “Rám” from the tongue of Rámánand, he withdrew his hands from the Brahman's feet, and ceased not to repeat the word “Rám, Rám!” so that no other object but that was hovering before his eyes, as before those of Rámánanda; and he discoursed about the unity of God in sublime speeches, such as are heard only from the most learned men. Kabir, having acquired reputation, people said to Rámánand: “There is a weaver in this town who wishes to be your disciple; it is to be regretted that you cannot be connected with a weaver, who is a man of a low caste.” Rámánand answered: “Call him to me,” which was done. When Kabir's eye fell upon that of Rámánanda, the former exclaimed: “Rám, Rám!” the latter repeated “Rám, Rám!” and clasped Kabir fast in his arms, to the great astonishment and wonder of the people around, who asked the reason of such a favor. Rámánand replied: “Now Kabir is a Brahman, because he knows Brahma, that is, the supreme Being.”

It is said, that a class of learned Brahmans, sitting on the border of the river Ganga, praised its water, because it washes away all sins. Whilst so speaking, one of the Brahmans wanted water; Kabir, who had heard their speeches, jumped up from his place, and having filled a wooden cup which he carried with water, brought it to the Brahman. Kabir, a weaver by birth, being of a low caste, from the hands of whom Brahmans can neither eat nor drink, the water was not accepted, upon which Kabir observed: “You have just now declared, that the water of the Ganga purifies the body and the soul from the pollution of sins, and from the foulness of evil actions, and makes them all disappear; but if this water does not render pure this wooden vase, it certainly does not deserve your praises.”

Among the Hindus it is an establised custom to bring flowers to God at the time of worship. One day Kabir saw a gardener's wife who collected flowers for the image of a deity; he said to her: “In the leaves of the flower lives the soul of vegetation, and the idol to whom thou offerest flowers is without feeling, dead, without consciousness, in the sleep of inertness, and has no life; the condition of the vegetable is superior to that of the mineral. If the idol possessed a soul, he would chastise the cutter, who, when dividing the matter of which the image is formed, placed his foot upon the idol's breast: go, and venerate a wise, intelligent, and perfect man, who is a manifestation of Vichnu.”

Kabir showed always great regard for the Fakírs. One day, a number of Durvishes came to him; he received them with respect in his house; as he possessed nothing to show his generosity and munificence to them, he went from door to door to procure something, but having found nothing, he said to his wife: “Hast thou no friend from whom thou mayst borrow something?” She answered: “There is a grocer in this street who threw an eye of bad desire upon me; would I from this sinner demand something, I should obtain it.” Kabir said: “Go immediately to him, grant him what he desires, and bring something for the durvishes.” The woman went to the lewd grocer, and requested the loan of what she required; he replied: “If thou comest this night to me, thy request is granted;” the woman consented, and swore the oath which he imposed upon her to come; after which the grocer gave her rice, oil, and whatever these men might like. When the Fakírs, well satisfied, went to rest, a heavy rain began to fall, and the woman wished to break her engagement; but Kabir, in order to keep her true to her word, having taken her upon his shoulder, carried her in the dark and rainy night, through the deep mud, to the shop of the bad grocer, and placed himself there in a corner. When the woman had entered into the interior part of the house, and the man found her feet unsullied, he said to her: “How didst thou arrive without thy feet being dirty?” The woman concealed the fact. The grocer conjured her by the holy name of God to reveal the truth; the woman, unable to refuse, said what had taken place. The grocer, on hearing this, shrieked and was senseless. When he had recovered his senses, he ran out and threw himself at Kabir's feet. Afterwards, having distributed among the poor whatever he had in his shop, he became a Virágí. Shaikh Mahmud said:

It is said that when Kabir left his elemental body, the Muselmans assembled in order to give him a burial, because they supposed him to have been of the right faith; and the Hindus too crowded in order to burn his body, because they thought him to have professed their religion. At last a Fakír stept in the midst of them, and said: “Kabir was a holy man, independent of both religions; but having during his life satisfied you, he will also, after death, meet with your approbation.” Having then opened the door, they did not find Kabir's body, and both parties remained astonished and bewildered.

In Jagernath, at the place where they burn the dead, is the form and simulacre of a tomb which they call Kabir's.¹

Another of the celebrated Virágis was Dáyú. One day, when Brahmans and Bánians (that is, traders) were assembled in a temple of Vichnu, they drove Dáyú out of it, as not worthy of being among their congregation. Dáyú, having gone out, sat down at the back of the temple, which soon after turned about towards the side where Dáyú was.

Perah Káivan, a Yezdánian, is one of the accomplished saints, and shows himself in the dress of every sect. When in that of a Vairági, he was in Guzerat for the sake of a pleasure-walk, he saw some of the Váirágis who came from a place of pilgrimage, and had a mark impressed upon their hand and arm: because, whoever makes a pilgrimage to the holy place of Krichna, gets the form of the God's weapon (the diskus) imprinted upon his body by means of a hot iron. Kaivan Perah said to the Vairágis: “Why this wound?” they answered: “This is the mark of Vichnu; whoever has it is by the God recognised as being his.” Kaivan Perah observed: “When the soul is separated from the body, they burn the corpse; no mark of it remains; whilst the soul is not perishable, and has no mark: how will then Vichnu recognise it?”— When he came to Ahmed-abad, which is the capital of Guzerat, he saw a crier who, from the top of a mosque, chanted his prayer; when he had come down, Káivan Perah asked him: “Hast thou received an answer?” the crier said: “From whom?” Kaivan replied: “From him to whom thou hast been calling.” Lubhaní says:

When he came to the harbour of Surat, which is one of the principal ports of Hindostán, he met with a Háji (a pilgrim from Mecca) who had come by sea to the harbour; Kaiván Perah asked him: “Whence dost thou come?” He answered: “From the house of God.” Kaiván said further: “Hast thou seen God?” The reply was “No.” He was “perhaps not at home,” rejoined Kaiván, and the Háji remained astonished.

The Vairágis are not devoted to a particular worship; they say, the name of Vishnu suffices for the acquisition of mukt, or “the union with God.” This sect was formed during the Káli yúg, and call themselves also Váichnavas: they renounce the world, and say: “Our way is opposite to that of the Vêdas and of the Koran: that is, we have nothing to do either with Muselmans or Hindus.” A great number of Muselmans adopted their creed, such as Mirza Salah, and Mirza Háider, two noble Muselmans who became Vaíragis. Of this sect was Naráin Dásí, who sided with Rámánandis, which is one of the Sampradayas, that is the first of the four classes before mentioned. The author of this book saw him in the year 1052 of the Hejira (1642 A. D.) in Lahore. He was one of those who are freed from the affections of the world; he honored whomever he saw, and said: “Every body belongs to the divinity; that is, every body is the house of God.”

Píránah Kohely was of the sect of Vairagis, and Kohelí is a tribe of Kshatriyas; he withdrew from all the affections and troubles of the world. Having left the Guzerat of Panjab, which is his native place and the seat of his ancestors, he went to Vizírábád, a city built by Hakím Ilam eddín, named Buzín khan, and chose to settle not far from the above mentioned Guzerat. He had no faith in pious austerity. He said, the saints are men who, in a former existence, have brought affliction upon other men, and on that account do penance in this world; every pious act joined to some austerity is a requital of their deeds; those who are fasting have, in a former state, let hunger and thirst afflict the low and feeble; those who watch at night have, in his opinion, prevented the servants from sleeping; the Sanyásis, called Thádéser, who remain years standing upon one leg, he thinks to be a class of spirits who have not permitted the servants to sit down; and those who suspend themselves, and others who perform their devotion in an inverted or strained posture, are a class who used to suspend their inferiors; and those who visit celebrated places and sacred mansions of pilgrimage, are a set who, for trifling reasons, have without pity sent about couriers to different places, without paying them their hire; the játis,¹ that is, those who abstain from intercourse with women, and from sensual indulgence, are an order of spirits, who have not provided for their sons and daughters the subsistence and furniture requisite for the marriage state, and prohibited to them this enjoyment, for which reason they now are subjected to retaliating penance.

This sect do no harm to any living being; which is common to all Vairágis, as well as to neglect devotion; but, in opposition to the creed of the Vairágis, they do not admit the Avatars, and say that God is exempt from transmigration and union; and, according to those who profess the belief in the unity and solitariness of the supreme being, he is not susceptible of (what we call) intimate friendship. Being asked about the history of Krichna, Píránah said: “He was a Rája, devoted to licentiousness, and oppressing mankind.” The writer of these pages saw Píranah in the year 1050 of the Hejira (1640 A. D.), in Vizirábád, and in the same year and in the same place he saw Ananta, who was of the same creed as Píránah, but particularly addicted to the belief of the singleness of God.

Ananta did not advise abstinence to the sick. One of his friends being attacked by a diarrhœa, Ananta gave him substantial and sweet food, until he left this elemental body. One of his disciples wanted to have a vein opened; Ananda, having been informed of it, expressed himself strongly against this operation and prevented it. Thus, the author of these pages saw, in the year of the Hejira 1050 (A. D. 1640) in Guzerat of the Panjab, another of this sect, called Mían Lál, who was venerated by a great number of his sectaries; he abstained from eating any sort of animal food, and showed politeness to every body; like Píránah, he never cleansed his patched garment from vermin, and used to say: “These insects have an assignment for their daily subsistence written upon my body.” Váirágis are also called Mundís ;¹ because they shave four parts of their bodies, and one shaved is called Mundí.¹ There arose a dissension between this sect and the Sanyásis; in the year 1050 of the Hejira (1640 A. D.) a battle was fought at Hardwar,¹ which is a holy place of the Hindus, between the Mundís and the Sanyásis, in which the latter were victorious and killed a great number of the Mundís: these men threw away their rosaries of Tulasi wood which they wear about their necks, and hung on their perforated ears the rings of the Jógís, in order to be taken for these sectaries.

SECTION THE NINTH: ON THE CREED OF THE CHA RVAK.²—This sect call rupa skandha³ whatever is perceived and understood by means of the senses. What is ascertained by the perception of the senses is named vidyá⁴ skandha. Personality, consciousness, egotism, have the denomination of jnaná skandha.¹ The knowledge of animal nature is termed jnapti skandha.² Whatever enters the interior part, that is, the mind, is entitled sanskára skandha.³ They say, out of these five skandhas just mentioned, there is no other living principle, neither in man nor brutes;⁴ the world and its inhabitants have no creator, and there is no maker: this is clear: because whatever has not entered into the field of manifestation, and has not broken into daylight, cannot have the color of reality, and to be high or low, proceeds from the nature of the universe; whatever is written in the Vedas is not made public, and besides may be a lie which rests upon no foundation; and a lie certainly proceeds from the Vedas, inasmuch as they perform hóm, which is a ceremony in which they throw rice and like matters into the fire, and recite prescribed prayers, saying that this goes to the gods: now, whatever we throw into the fire, after cremation, becomes ashes—how do these go to the gods? It is also written in the Vedas, that they are to make an offering of cooked meal to a dead man—who is to enjoy it? For instance, when a person is gone from village to village, from one town to another, and in his absence a meal destined for him is presented to another person, the stomach of the former will not be filled. In the same manner, when any thing is offered to a dead person, who, according to the assumption of the followers of the Vedas, has been translated to another world, what honor and profit will accrue from it to him?

Thus is it also among the revelations of the Vedas, that the depraved and criminal will be punished, and the virtuous and holy associated to quietness and satiated with prosperity: the one and the other is a lie: because the vicious man is freed and alleviated from the hardship of fasting, of bathing in cold water, of subjection to pious practices, and other inconveniences; whilst the virtuous, according to the Vedas, is bound to all these troubles; further, the wise ought to take his share of all the pleasures and cultivate his happiness, because, once reunited with earth, he will no more return.

However, nobody is to hurt living beings, as by it he is liable to cause some harm to himself. It is agreed by the wise that no injury is to be done to another; by the observance of which men may be set at ease, their numbers increased, and cultivation be promoted. This is the substance of the belief of the Charvák.

We will explain it more clearly; their creed is as follows: As the creator is not manifest, and the comprehension of mankind cannot attain to any certain knowledge about him, why should we submit to the bondage of an object doubtful, imaginary, if even wished for, yet not found; and why should we, in temples and monasteries, rub our foreheads on the ground, and present offerings to deities whose reality, as all agree, will not stand trial? And why, for the promise of heaven and of future beatitude should we, like blockheads, abstain from the abundance of desirable things, from conveniences and blandishments? A wise man will not give ready money for an adjourned good, and deliver up place and power upon the lying accounts of books, which eloquent men call Vedas, or heavenly books; it is upon their authority that they extinguish all desires in themselves, and press the necks of men, like those of animals, in halters. We ought not to be deceived; we ought not to believe what is not evident. The frame of the body is composed of four elements, which by the necessity of nature are united harmoniously together; as long as the constitution is firm and health flourishing, it is proper to enjoy whatever is desirable by its nature, provided no harm to living creatures arises from it; when the frame falls asunder, the state to which the element returns can only be the element; after the disjunction of the bodily structure, there is no ascent to a higher mansion, no beatitude or quietness, no descent, or fire, or hell. These sectaries, when they hear the Vedas recited, say jokingly: “These are sick persons in a painful fit, or hired journeymen in an uproar.” When they behold the zunar (sacred thread) upon the neck of a Brahman, they say: “A cow will not be without a rope.” When they find a pious person watching by night, they say: “He aspires to the dignity of an owl.” When they encounter a hermit upon a mountain, they remark: “He strives to outdo a bear.” When a person practises the restraining of breath, they observe: “He wishes to imitate a snake,” Of a person in a bath, they say: “He chooses the dwelling of a fish or a frog.” Moreover, when the Hindus relate that Brahma, Vichnu, and Mahadéo, their three great divinities, are the creator, the preserver, and the destroyer of the world, they reply: “They represent nothing else than the sexual organs.”¹ Upon Vichnu's having four arms, they gloss: “At the time of sexual intercourse, each man and woman has as many.” To the praise of Mahadéo, from whose head the river Ganges flowed, they subjoin the interpretation, that “this means the virile organ in its natural functions.”² They meet the statement of Brahma's being the creator of things, with the reply: “That this is an emblem of the birth of children:” and they proffer many other speeches of a similar import.

SECTION THE TENTH: ON THE SYSTEM OF THOSE WHO PROFESS THE DOCTRINE OF TARK.¹ — Tark śastra is the science of dialectics; it is divided into sixteen parts, as follow: THE FIRST, Pramána;² this is the application of the science, which is subdivided into four parts: 1. Paríkshá;³ that is, evidence, which with them is the sense of discriminating what is particular and well defined; 2. Anumána;⁴ that is, after having perceived the mark of an object, to infer its existence; thus shall I call a mountain igni-vomous, on account of the smoke which proceeds from it; 3. Apamána;⁵ that is “resemblance;” thus I shall say: such as is a cow, such is also an elk (or gayal);⁶ although I may not have seen an elk, but only heard that it is like a cow; 4. Sabda;⁷ that is, “sound:” by these they mean speeches which people adopt as sacred; such “as the Hindus have the Vedas, and the Muselmans the Koran.” These are the four parts which constitute the Pramána.

THE SECOND of the sixteen divisions of the Tark sastra is Pramiti,¹ that is, the comprehension of what is conjoint and concomitant. This division is subdivided into twelve parts, namely, 1. Atmá,² that is “spirit;” and means something which is distinct from what is material and sentient; something everlasting, eternal, very subtile in all bodies; 2. Sarírá,³ that is “body;” and this they define to be the seat of sensuality and of maladies; 3. Indriya ,⁴ “the exterior senses;” and these they call the organs of perception; 4. Artha,⁵ and this they declare to be “the earthly existences;” 5. Buddhi ,⁶ which they term “knowledge;” 6. Manas,⁷ “or the interior sense, which with the Hindus is the heart,” and that is enough; 7. Pravritti,⁸ and this consists in justice or injustice; 8. Dósha,¹ that is “sinful error,” and this is subdivided into three parts, viz.: Rága, and this is “sensual lust;” Dvèsha, that is, “hate, enmity;” Muha,² and this is “gross ignorance;” 9. the ninth of the twelve subdivisions is Prétyabháva,³ which is “the reproduction either of the tree from the seed, or of the animal from the sperma; 10. Phal,⁴ or “the good consequence of the good, or the bad consequence of the bad,” which means “retribution;” 11. Dukh,⁵ or “pain;” and 12. Apavarga,⁶ that is, “delight,” or the satisfaction of truth, from which they derive emancipation, or mukt, in the language of their learned men. Whoever is in full possession of it banishes far from himself twenty-one maladies which they enumerate, namely: 1. Saríra,⁷ or “the body;” 2. Shadindriya,¹ that is, “the six senses,” five of which are exterior, and the sixth is, according to the Hindus, the interior sense, except which they know of no other; they say, the mind is the lord of the exterior senses; 3. Shad-darsa,² that is, “the six particular objects of the six senses;” so as seeing with the eye, hearing with the ear, smelling with the nose, tasting with the tongue, touching with the hand, and perceiving with the mind; he who sees is one, and that which is seen is another; so that there is a seeing eye and a seen object, whatever is seen, heard, smelled, tasted, touched, and impressed upon the mind, corresponds respectively to each of the six senses; and whatever is found by these six senses, or the six objects, are called Shad-darsas; these six, with the six former senses, and the saríra, or “body,” make thirteen; add to these six buddhaya, or “powers of comprehension;” further, sukhá, or “sensual delight;” and finally, dukh,³ or “pain,” and you have the twenty-one affections before mentioned.

THE THIRD of the sixteen parts of the Tarka is the sanśaya:⁴ this consists in pondering whether a certain object be such a thing or another, as when a person sees from a distance an object and is not certain what it is, whether it be a mineral or a man.

THE FOURTH PART is the Prayójana,¹ that is, “motive,” which they explain thus: as when one by order goes to find something either good or bad.

THE FIFTH PART is the Drishtánta;² that is, “comparison by way of illustration;” so when they compare a mountain and a kitchen, that is: the mountain contains fire, and so does the kitchen, and both indicate it by the smoke which they emit.

THE SIXTH PART is the Siddhanta;³ and this is knowing something with certainty.

THE SEVENTH PART is Avayava,⁴ “dividing a subject into minute parts;” for instance, when they say:

“he mountain contains fire on account of smoke,” so is, in this question, the first part termed pratijnya , or “proposition,” the mountain contains fire; the second part, called hètu, or “cause, reason;” in this thesis is: on account of the smoke which it emits.

THE EIGHTH PART is Tarka,¹ that is, “arguing:” so when they say: “the mountain contains no fire,” it may be replied: “consequently it also emits no smoke.”

THE NINTH PART is Nirnéya;² which is to find the truth immediately.

THE TENTH is Váda,³ or “discussion;” that is, to raise questions about God and the saints.

THE ELEVENTH is Jalpa;⁴ that is, “wrangling;” when one, in the establishment of what is right, endeavors to conquer his adversary.

THE TWELTH PART is Vitandá;⁵ which means that one pays no attention to his own position, but combats that of other persons.

THE THIRTEENTH PART is hètwàbhása;¹ or “fallacious argument;” so when one says: “sound is eternal;” because what may be seen by the eye is like the sky, and just as the sky is perceived by sight, so is sound the perception of the ear.

THE FOURTEENTH PART is Chhala,² “deceit;” this is when one substitutes one meaning for another: so as the Persian word náu kambil³ means “a new cover,” or “nine covers,” it may give occasion to equivocation.

THE FIFTEENTH PART is Játi⁴ “futile argument;” and this may be applied to a lying purpose: so when one says that “sound is eternal,” because it is created, as is the sky; both are the works of a divinity; and whereas the sky is eternal, sound is everlasting.

THE SIXTEENTH PART is Nigraha,⁵ or “subjugation;” that is, when one wishes to be a conqueror at the end of a dispute with another.

These are the sixteen parts of the Tarka.¹ The followers of this doctrine judge and affirm that, as this world is created, there must be a Creator; the mukt or “emancipation,” in their opinion means striving to approach the origin of beings, not uniting like the warp and the web, the threads of which, although near, are nevertheless separate from each other. This was related to me by the Imám Arastú, who was a chief of the learned and said to me that he had derived it from an old treatise upon logic, the precepts of which were without explanation, and to have bestowed on it that arrangement under which it now exists amongst the learned: he meant, probably, that the maxims are the same as those extracted from the Tarka. The same doctrine was taught in Greece: in confirmation of this, the Persians say, that the science of logic which was diffused among them was, with other sciences, translated into the language of Yonia and Rumi, by order of king Secander, the worshipper of science, in the time of his conquest, and sent to Rúmi.

SECTION THE ELEVENTH: ON THE TENETS HELD BY THE FOLLOWERS OF BUDDHA. — These sectaries are also called Jatis.¹ They have no belief in incarnations or Avatárs of the Deity, but they admit the transmigration of the soul into different bodies; they deny several other dogmas of the Hindus; in their opinion, nothing is more detestable than the doctrine of the Brahmans, and when a misfortune befals any one of them, they say: “Hast thou perchance done some good to a Brahman, or drunk some water of the bone devourer: so they call the Ganges, because the Hindus, after the burning of the dead, throw their bones into that river, and think it a meritorious act. The Jatis take the greatest care of not hurting a living being; on which account they do not like to pass through water, for fear that an animal might come under their feet. They eat no animal food, never put their feet upon grass, and when they drink water, they filter it first through a handkerchief or a piece of cloth, that no living animal may remain in it, and then steep this piece of cloth awhile in water, in order that, if a living being stick thereto, it may be separated, and take its place in the liquid. A great number of the Baníans or traders are of this sect; for the most part they sell corn, and some get a livelihood as servants. The durvishes of this class are called Srivaras and Jatís.¹ They pluck the hair of their head and beard by means of tweezers.² When they travel, they carry a besom of the bark of a soft tree with them, and out of regard for the life of animals, they sweep the road with it before they put down their feet, that no living insect may be destroyed. When they speak, they hold a handkerchief before their mouth, not to swallow a fly or other insect.

They are frequently learned, and pass their life in celibacy and sanctity; these they call Jatis, who never behold the face of a woman. Those of this sect who are married, called Grihastha,³ show great regard for the Jatis, before whom, by a refinement of respect, they scarce dare bend their body. Whenever they receive a Jati in their house, they do whatever he orders, according to their power. They are divided into two classes: the Lunugí and Pujáris. The first are those who adore God as one, and think him free from all imperfections and contradictions, descents and conjunctions, and who worship no idol. The Pujáris venerate the image of a deity, and have temples for it. The durvishes of both classes, called Jatis, at the time of taking meals, go into the houses of friends, and take only as much food as may not cause a privation to the people of the house: thus they visit several houses until they get satiated. They drink no cold water, but go from place to place, and wherever any body has warm water for bathing, they take a little of it, and having thus collected sufficient water, they let it cool and then drink it.

Similar to the durvi hes of both classes is a third sect, called Mahá-átma; they have the dress and appearance of Jatis; only they do not pluck their hair with tweezers, but cut it. They accumulate money, cook their meal in their houses, drink cold water, and take to them a wife. Farzánah Khushí says: I saw, in Guzerat of the Panjab, a Śrivara, and requested him to give me a full account, which may be deemed true beyond any doubt, of the people of his sect. He related as follows: “The men of my faith maylive retired from the world, or devoted to business; they do no harm to any body; but there are many of them eager for science, and as many bereft of knowledge.” One of the Maha-átmas was a learned man; the wife of a rich man devoted herself to his service; one day she complained to him of the unkindness of her husband; the Śrivara gave no answer; wherefore the woman said: “Another time I will not wait on thee, because thou takest no interest in me.” The Śrivara rejoined: “If even thy visit were agreeable to me, it would be of no service to thee.” He then took up a bit of grass, and having breathed upon it, gave it to the woman, saying: “Put on a clean garment, and having ground the grass, rub it upon thy garment until thy husband becomes kind to thee.” The woman returned to her house, and having ground the grass upon a stone, intended to rub it upon her garment, when the husband entered into the room, therefore the grass she had ground remained upon the stone. When night fell in, they shut the door of the house. The stone at every moment jumped from its place, knocked against the board of the door, and fell back: the woman and her husband were astonished. The man asked his wife the reason of it, and she, from fear, told him what had taken place. The man rose and opened the door of the house; the stone was set in motion, and rolled on until it reached the house of the Mahá-átma. Many other similar stories are told of the Srívaras. Khushi said that he had seen the Jati just mentioned, who by the power of incantation put stones into motion; he praised him, but declared that this man was really a Jati, but not a Mahá-átma.

The author of this book affirms he has seen a great number of Srivaras and their followers. From them he knew Meher chand, a Lúnú, in the year 1056 of the Hejira (1646 A. D.), in Dotárah, which is under the dominion of Jodpur Márawár, he found also Síva rama, a Pujári, in Mirta, which place belongs to Marawar, and one named Jagna, a Banian, in Ráwel Pandi: he was adorned with all the good qualities of Jatis. When he saw a bird in the hands of a fowler, he bought it of him and set it free. This sect do whatever they can for the liberation of living beings. Many of them are rájas in several places and countries. When one brings a goat which he has bought somewhere, and is disposed to kill it, they come from their shops and buy the animal at a high price; thus it has been seen that, having assembled from person to take care of them. It is said, that in Guzeall hands a great number of sheep, they appointed a rat lived a Banian who was a Jati; one day, a Muselman Durvish sat down before his shop, and having picked vermin from his coat, was about to kill it; the Banian interposed; the Durvish said: “If thou wilt give me something, I may spare it;” the Banian offered a pie;¹ the other wanted more and more, until the bargain closed with the sum of one hundred rupees, which the Banian paid for the liberation of the offensive insect. Hafiz Shirázi says:

SECTION THE TWELFTH: ON VARIOUS RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS PROFESSED BY THE PEOPLE OF INDIA.—It is to be recollected that, as has been stated, there are Samradíán, Khodaníán, Radián, Shíderangíán, Pâikeríán, Mílánían, Aláríán, Shídábíán, Akhshían, and Mazdakían, who are dispersed in Iran and Turan, and all appear in the dress of Muselmans, although in secret they follow each the path of their own chosen faith; in the same manner various sects are also established in India, but they do not appear in the dress of Muselmans. It is to be known, that the fundamental rule in the creed of the Hindus is the Smriti, that is, the “law,” and that all Rakshasas, that is, “devotees,” follow this way; the Véda, to them the heavenly book, prescribes the acts, and is a text, from which every sect may derive proofs of its particular belief, and all may agree in some points.

I have already given an account of their religion, but I must here remind the reader of some points. They say Naránaya, that is, “the deity,” in the origin was alone; a flower, namely, the lotus, having a thousand leaves, rose from his navel, from which Brahma came forth, Brahma chatur mukha,¹ or “four faced;” one of these faces was cut off by Máhadéo; Brahma is also ashta báhu,² that is “eight armed;” in his navel was also a flower of five hundred leaves, from which Vichnu proceeded; Vichnu chatur báhu, or “four armed;” he carries in one hand a spear; in the other, the chakra, “the discus,” a weapon peculiar to the Hindus; in the third hand, the gadá, or “club;” and, in the fourth, the lotus flower. In the navel of Vichnu was a lotus of one hundred leaves, from which sprang Mahadéo, who is ashtamukha, or “eight faced” and “eight armed;” he rides upon a bull, his neck is surrounded by a snake, the hide of an elephant envelops him, and his body is rubbed with ashes; chandra, “the moon,” surya, “the sun,” and agni, or “fire,” are his three eyes. The sect of Sáivas adore Mahadéo, and his wife is worshipped by the Akmían and Ashnían, as before shown.

Another sect is that of the Sanyásis, who are praised in the Smriti; they distinguish themselves by long and entangled hair, which is called jata.¹ The Saiva-Sanyásis are also called Avadutas; their numbers increased during the Kaliyng; they are very pious, intrepid, and charitable. At one time, a war broke out between them and the Sófís: the former were victorious.

Another sect is that of the Jangaman; these also cut the hair off their heads, they rub dust upon their bodies, and praise Mahadéo, to whom they attribute a real existence. They are divided into several classes. They say, among the celestial spirits are nine Brahmas, who are the anśus,² that is, “the rays” of Brahma. There are one thousand Vichnus, rays of Vichnu, who is also called Naráyana ; there are eleven Rudras, rays of Rudra, which is a name of Mahádeo; they reckon twelve suns,³ rays of the great luminary; sixteen kalas,⁴ that is, parts or rays of the moon; and they divide the effulgence of that body into sixteen parts, and enumerate eight and twenty of its mansions, or nakshatras,¹ and seven planets, besides the head and tail of the dragon. Ganesa is to them a god with the head of an elephant. They distinguish eight quarters of the world, besides the zenith and nadir, and call them asht dísa,² in the following order: purva, “east;” paśchima, “west;” dakchina,” “south; and uttara, north;” between south and east, agni; between south and west, náirrita; between north and west, váyu, between north and east, iśána. Among the deities are Bhaírava³ and Hanuman, and among female spirits asht Durgás, or “eight Durgás,” in the following order: Kálaká, Chandra Kálanjarí, Káumarí, Váichnaví, Bábhraví, Chamundá,¹ Bhavání, and Parvati.² Maha Lakchmî Sarasvatí is the wife of Brahma. Rakshasas are termed the pious men of the Satya yug; Kaśyapa is the father of the sun; Vaśishta, the preceptor of Ram-avatár; Viśvamitra, a Kshatría, who by dint of pious austerity became a Brahman; Valmiki is the author of the poem Ramayána, which contains the history of Ráma; Angirasah Ihr Vyása composed the historical poem Mahabharata; Bhazadvája Jamadagni existed in the Dwapara yug; Gotama, Kapah, (Kapila?) Parására, Narada, in the Kali yug; Chonah, Apravanah, Aurdah, Jamed Kapeh, these are for ever living;³ Saptarchaya, that is, seven Richis, or “saints,” are: Kaśyapa, Uttara, Bhardvája, Viśvamitra, Gotama, Jamadagni, and Vaśishta.⁴

It is to be known that there is a class among the Hindus who give themselves the term of Muselman-sofis, and really agree in several tenets and opinions with the Sufís. Thus, in the first place, they devote themselves to celibacy. As they have heard that there are ten classes of Sanyásís, and twelve of Yogís, they also pretend to be divided into fourteen classes; when they meet together, the questions which they ask are: Who are the four sages, and which are the fourteen noble families? and they impose upon their disciples many years of service, before they reveal to them the four sages and the fourteen families; they say: The sage of sages is the illustrious Muhammed (may the peace of God be upon him!); after him, devoted to godliness, Ali (may the blessing of God be upon him!); from him the khalifat devolved upon Imam Hossain; then Khaja Hossen, of Basora, also was his disciple and a khalif: these four personages are the four sages. They say besides, from Khaja Hossen, of Basora, sprang two branches: the first was that of the khalif Hossen Basorí Habíb Ajemí, from whom nine families proceeded, named as follows: the Jíbíán, Táikeríán, Kerkhíán, Sikatíán, Jenídíán, Gazrúníán, Túsíán, Ferdusíán , and Soherwardíán. From the second khalifat of Hossen Basori, which was that of the Shaikh Abdul Wahid Zaid, came forth five families with the following titles: the Zebírían, Aiáśían, Adhamían, Habírían, and Cheshtíán: and these are the fourteen noble families. It is said, that there exists a congregation of pious sectaries, who do not adhere to the prophet Muhammed, although they acknowledge him to be a blessed gatherer of the harvest of virtuous perfection: they relate, that one day the prophet was taking a pleasure-walk under the guidance of Jabríl, and came to a place where a great tumult was heard. Jabril said: “This is the threshold of pleasure: enter into the house.” The prophet consented to go in, and there he saw sitting forty persons as naked as they came from their mother, and a band busy serving; but whatever service the prophet requested them to command him to do, they did not comply, until the moment to grind bang¹ arrived. When they had ground it, they had no cloth through which they could strain and purify it; then the prophet, having taken his turban from his head, purified through it the juice of the bang, the color of which remained on the turban; whence the garment of the Biní Hashem is green. When the prophet rendered them this service, they were glad, and said among themselves: “Let us give to this messenger of God, who is always running to the door of the ignorant, a little of the bang, that he may obtain the secrets of the Almighty power:” so they gave the remains of the juice to the prophet. When he had drunk it, he became possessed of the secrets of the angel of destiny, and whatever men heard from him, came through the means of this bounty.

There is a great number of this sect in Hindostan, and among the most celebrated of them are, in the first line, the Madárían, who, like the Sanyásís Avadhuts, wear the hair entangled; and the ashes which they and the Sanyásis rub upon their bodies are called bhasma;¹ besides, they carry iron chains on their heads and necks, and have black flags and black turbans; they know neither prayers nor fasts; they are always sitting at a fire; they drink a great deal of bang; and the most perfect among them go about without any dress, in severe cold, in Kabul, and Kachmir, and such places. These also consume much bang, and to the praise of one of their sect they say: “Such a one takes two or three seers² of bang. When they sit together, they relate, that in the night, when the prophet ascended through the seven stages of heaven, he received the command of God to wander through the heavens. When he arrived at the door of paradise, he found the entrance as narrow as the eye of a needle; the porter made him a sign to enter; the prophet said: “With this body, how shall I enter through this passage?” Jabríl replied: “Say: dam madar,” (“the breath of Madar,” a particular ejaculation of this sect). The prophet said so, upon which the narrow door opened, and he entered heaven.

They say, when Badih eddin Madar¹ came to Hindostan, he became a Yogi, whom the Hindus held in great esteem, and who had a great number of followers. Madar took a house; he sent a little boy, whose name was Jamen, with the order to fetch some dry cowdung with which he wanted to kindle a fire. It so happened that Jamen fell in with an assembly of Yogis, who, supposing him a Muselman, killed, cut into pieces, and devoured the boy. Some time after, not receiving any thing to light up his fire, Madár went in search of Jamen, and found the assembly of Yogis, to whom he said: “What have you done with my good little boy?” They answered: “We have not seen him.” Madár called him loud by his name, and the members of Jamen, from within the bodies of the assembled Yogis, answered “Dam madar.” Madár then said to the Yogis: “Shall I bring forth Jamen from you all, or from one only of you?” They replied: “From one body only.” By the power of Madár, the limbs of the boy having united, in a manner that no body perceived any thing of it, in the belly of the principal Yogi, Jamen fell out from the nose of the same, so that neither the nostril of the Yogi's nose was enlarged, nor the boy's limbs diminished:¹ whereupon the Yogis chose to run away. Madár settled at this place, which till now is known by the name of Makanpúr.² The Madarían come, as many as possible, from all parts of the world, once a year, on a fixed day, to Makanpur, and say that the blind and lame find their cure in that place.

They relate also, that Chistápá, the wife of Baharam Gul, in order to put to the test the Muhammedan and Indian durvishes and saints, came once among them who were assembled, and said: “Whoever will loosen the bracelet of beads (called Sámran ) upon my arm, without betraying the least symptom of lust, he is a perfect saint.” All the pretenders to perfect sanctity, Muselmans and Hindus, presented themselves, but at the sight of Chistapa, they all were maddened with love, such was the beauty of her face: at last the turn came to Jamen, who approached her, and loosened the bracelet in a manner which, at the same time, evinced his manly strength, and his complete command over himself.¹ On that account, Jamen was proclaimed victorious over all the Muselmans and Hindus. And they have a great number of other similar stories.

Another sect, the Jelalían, are disciples of Said Jelal, of Bokhára;² his sepulchre is in the village Auch, in the district of Sind; these sectaries profess to be Shíáhs, whilst the Medárían are Sunís, on which account they revile each other. The former know of neither prayers nor fasts, nor any other practices of piety with which the Sufís are occupied; they take a great deal of bang, and used to eat snakes and scorpions. When the adepts among them see a snake, they put it whole into their mouth and swallow it, saying: “This is a fish of the holy Alí;” in eating a scorpion they remark: “This is a prawn of Alí:” and the worms which are found in the water, they call the little crabs of Alí. Like the Medárian, the Jelalían go naked, and even in the severely cold season, wear no garment; they sit before the fire like the Medárian, but do not wear matted hair; frequently they shave four parts of their body, and lead a wandering life in the world. Some of them bring every thing that they gain to their master, and when they go for instruction to a preceptor, they deliver to him whatever they possess in ready money and other property; after which he presents them with a turban, and his list of saints; they wear that on their heads, and hang this on their necks. They believe that, when Jzráíl comes to take their soul, the turban, descending, covers their eyes so that they may not behold the face of the angel of death, which is exceedingly terrific. Their master looks every day for a new connexion with a woman; whenever he knows of a fine girl among his disciples, he orders trumpets to be blown, goes on horseback, and betaking himself to their house, uses his own discretion with the girl, whom he now and then takes to his own house, but never marries. The author of this book asked one of the Jelális: “Hámed Mahommed, your master, does he take the daughter of one of his disciples without marrying her?” He answered: “The Safavian kings too take wives, daughters, and sons of their disciples, who are highly pleased with it, why should not Hámed Mahommed, who is truly the Khalif (substitute) of Alí, do the same?” This act is a sign of sovereignty, and a prerogative of the family of the prophet. In this country are many of his disciples, and he is a very great friend to hunting.

There is another sect who call themselves without tie and food; it is a laudable conduct with them to take nothing from any body beyond the required food and drink; and for their indispensable clothing, from the shreds which they find in the streets to stick together a coat, which they call kherka; and when they ask something from any body, they first revile him and call him bad names, wherefore they often receive bad treatment from the people. They say, God is a spirit, and Muhammed his body; his four friends are his two arms and two feet; dam mádar, that is, Mádar, is the breath and the spirit of God. They drink many sorts of spirituous and intoxicating liquors. They believe the unity of the divine being, and some of them are also pious men. Their master was Gada Naráyana. The three just mentioned sects never shed the blood of animated beings.

Another sect, called Kakan, is in Kachmir; celibacy is their law, and their belief the unity of the divine being. They use much bang; a number of them is devoted to piety; their name of “Kakan” is derived from that of their master, who was Ibrahim Kakak. He lived, they say, in the time of the Pádshah Jchangír, who inhabits heaven, and drew to him whomever he chose; his very sight was such an attraction, that he on whom it fixed was irresistibly thrown at his feet; thus he attached to himself a great number of disciples, Hindus and Muselmans, none of whom he induced to change his religion; that is to say, to the Hindu he did not expound the Koran, nor propose circumcision; and to the Muselman he did not make an obligation of the Zunar, and of the mark of caste upon the forehead; neither the praise of Muselmans nor the blame of Hindus came ever upon his tongue; he never pronounced either the name of the prophet or that of an Avatar, which are the great objects of veneration to the Muselmans and to the Hindus; but he uttered Ruma, or Alla, or Khoda. He did not sleep at night, nor did his disciples, who sat back to back until morning before him. At a place of Kachmir, he said to his followers: “A great number of men laid down; let us do the same.” The followers answered: “Let it be as you say:” he then first laid himself down to sleep, and the friends did the same. One day he heard the voice of a crier from the top of a minaret, and said: “This is the voice of God;” at this moment one of his companions broke wind; he subjoined: “This too is God; this too the divine tongue.” A student present said to him: “Do not blaspheme.” He replied: “The one and the other is an undulation of the air, and the air is subject to God.” The student reassumed: “But the bad smell, with the noise, what is it?” The answer was: “This proceeds from the association of ‘thou and I;’” The student said farther: “Drink no bang, because the bang-drinkers shall not pass over the bridge of judgment (saraťh).” Kakak replied: “Great is the number of bang-drinkers; let us, on this side of the bridge, build a town and call it Bang pur, and not think of passing the bridge.” Goya Kásem composed a ludicrous account of these drunken sectaries. When the king Kásem Anwar (distributor of splendors) was near the habitation of excellence, he recited the following verses:

A great number of men in India think as these sectaries. The Sanyásis assembled once in one of the sacred places of pilgrimage revered by the Hindus; by accident, an army of naked Jelális and Madáris came there at the same time, and having brought a cow, wanted to kill it; the Sanyásis bought the cow from them; they came a second time, with another cow, which the Sanyásis again, not without entreaties, purchased. These men, barefoot and bareheaded, having become insolent by their numbers, brought a third cow and killed it; the Sanyásis, indignant at this, attacked them, and a battle ensued, in which the Sanyásis at last obtained the victory, and killed seven hundred of the naked Jelális and Madáris; they educated the boys of these fanatics, whom they made prisoners on this occasion, in their own religion. The Sanyásis were frequently seen engaged in war.

Another class of the Hindus are the Yógis, who pretend to a high antiquity; an account of them has already been given.

Other sects, such as the Sankhyan, and the Patanjálís ,¹ are devoted to piety, and practise the yóga, and other pious austerities; also the Charvakíán, who believe the four classes of their sect to be very ancient: we have already treated of them, as well as of the Játis and Vairágis; the Nanak Panthíán will be introduced hereafter.

The Narayaníán are a sect of the Hindus, which holds its creed from Gosáin Haridas. He was of the tribe of Játs, from the village Kaníra, in the district of Saválik; he was a servant of Nabidás Sanyálá; which last name is that of a tribe of the numerous Rájaputs. Haridas, when hunting, shot an arrow at a deer which was with young, and brought down a fawn, which had also been pierced by the arrow. At the sight of this event, Haridas broke his bow and arrows, tore his garment into pieces, weeping and bewailing, and during twelve years had no intercourse with the society of men. Afterwards, he assembled many disciples about him. He died in the year 1055 of the Hejira (1645 A. D.). This sect know nothing of idols, nor of temples, nor of the Kâbah, nor of any sort of worship; they do nothing towards obtaining the knowledge of, or union with, God; they confine themselves to the veneration of Naráyan, or “the supreme Being,” from which they derive the name of Naráyanían. They do not occupy themselves with the affairs of the world; abnegation and solitude is their law. Some have an earthen cup to drink water in; some dispense even with this; they hurt no living being; they never pull up any grass or green herbs; they burn nothing; cook no meal; and when hungry, they go into the houses of the Hindus, and accept some food, but no flesh of any sort of animal. When one of them is about to die, he is asked: “Shall we burn thy body, or throw it into the water, or bury it in the earth?” Whichever he desires is done.

Another sect is that of the Dádu Panthians. Dádu was one of the cotton carders in the village Naráina, in the district of Marwar. In the time of the Padshah Akbár (who inhabits heaven!) Dádu devoted himself to the state of a Durvesh, and assembled many disciples about him. He prohibited his followers to worship idols, to eat the flesh of any animal, or to hurt any living being; but he did not order them to abandon woman and wife, or to withdraw from all business of the world; but he left it free to any one to give up, or to cultivate, the connection and intercourse with men. When one of them dies, they place his corpse upon the back of a quadruped, and send it into the desert, saying: “It is now better that rapacious and other animals may be satiated with it.”

The Píára panthíán hold their creed from Bábá Píára; at the time of begging, they stand before the shops and houses, without looking at any body or saying any thing; they demand nothing with the tongue; they accept what is given, and go away when nothing is offered. The Mobed says:

They take no notice of the Muselmans, although they so call themselves.

The sect of the Vishnavas follow the doctrine of Gosáin Jáni. We hold the information from Jogendas, that they called their master Jehan, and his followers, composed of Hindus and Muselmans, adopted the creed of Vishnavi. This is as follows: they hurt no living being; they avoid fellowship with men of another creed among the Hindus and Muselmans; they pray five times a-day, with their face towards the east; they have the names of God, of the divinities, of the prophet upon their lips, such as Allah, Míkáíl, Jzráíl, Jibrail, Muhammed, Jl, and others; they bury their dead; they confer benefits upon others to the extent of their power; a number of their Durvishes pretend to be afflicted with maladies and beg alms, and whatever they so collect they distribute to the blind and lame, and to people of that description.

Further to be noticed is the sect of the Surya-makhan,¹ that is, of “the worshippers of the sun.” These derive their origin from an ancient nation of Hindus, and are divided into two classes. The one of them says: The great luminary is one of the divinities of the first rank; he has átmá and buddhi, that is, “soul and intellect;” the light of the stars and the splendor of the universe proceeds from him; he is the asht bhuvana loka,² that is, “the origin of the eight worlds,” and of all earthly beings; the sarva prabhá deva,³ “the God of all radiance,” the chief and ruler of all divinities, the deity of heavens, the king of the stars; the Mahajyóti,⁴ or “the great light,” worthy of praise; and of namaskara,⁵ that is “respectful salutation,” and of adoration; and of hóm, or “sacrificial perfumes.” When the sun rises with his pure body, they stand opposite to him, and after adoration recite a Sanskrit prayer, the paraphrase of which is as follows:⁶ “Whatever beautiful light and high splendor thou possessest overflows the eyes from the excessive bounty of thy manifestation; thou art that light which is not surpassed by any other in the display of splendors; thine is the first prayer, for thou art the substitute of God, and we place our hope in thy bounty; to thee we address the prayers of our wants, that we may experience and loudly proclaim thy mercy. When this light is thy face, whatever we can say of the splendor, the beauty, and perfection of the supreme intellectual soul and of the pure wisdom, is but that one light which we recognise above in thy bountiful being, which thou temperest and displayest; this light derives its glory from thee, and supplication is due to this light. Give us thy assistance in the abnegation of worldly pleasures; render us equal to thyself in the purity of light, and by thy knowledge grant us union with thee; the wish of all virtuous hearts is, that they may, far removed from all sensual delights, be made happy in the communion with those who are like thee: we abandon all worldly delights, that we may become similar to thee in splendor, and arrive to thee, and remain with thee.”

The other class of the Suryamakhan say: Whatever exists in the Swargaloka¹ and in the Bhúloka,² that is, in the upper and lower world, draws its origin from the sovereign great luminary; by his glorious appearance we fill our lojáni,³ or “eyes,” with kalyanum,⁴ or “auspicious light;” and we hear the Sanákáras,⁵ that is, the incorporeal beings;” by him we acquire buddhi, that is “intellect,” the professor of which attaches his heart to nothing exterior: on that account they call the sun natha, “a sovereign, or divine being,” and pay worship to him. Both classes abstain from hurting living beings, and are on that account called jiva dayá,¹ “compassionate of life;” they do good to others as much as they can, wherefore they are termed punyavantas ,² “virtuous;” they keep far away from falsehood and iniquity, for which they are entitled dharmamayás ,³ “righteous.” The gríhastha, or “householder,” contents himself with one strí,⁴ or “wife.” They divide the sun into several parts, which they call dyuvá murtayas,⁵ “figures of the sun;” but the first class reckons among the Pandits, or “learned,” an order of men who have a system about ákása,⁶ “ether,” girayas,⁷ “mountains,” táráphal,⁸ “starry firmament;” about the rising of heavenly bodies and the prognostics which are connected with them; they possess perfectly the canons of the Véda anga, “sacred science,” in which the medical is comprised; and they set a great value upon buddhí, “intellect;” and áharanam,⁹ that is, “the application of the thinking faculty;” and they say, that this is the mediator between what is sankhyanam,¹ “rational,” or probable, and sadhanam,² “substantiated,” which last is the form of things perceived; and the right appreciation of probabilities is attained by dint of buddhi and aharanam, that is, by high intelligence; this is fixing the thought of contemplation; or arriving at the science of what is perceived and what is probable or rational; this comprehends properly two sciences which are possessed by the jitèndriya loka,³ that is, “by those sages who have subdued the senses.”

There is a class of durvishes who practise tapasya,⁴ or “devout austerity,” and who, by great and difficult penances, banish every illusion from them, so that in their sleep they may not have unbecoming dreams, which they say are produced by the influence of the imagination; and they guard their eyes from the wounds and impressions which also proceed from the imagination. They climb up to the tops of walls, without fear of falling down, and go to such places as are not easily accessible, which they say is a triumph over illusion; they pretend to have the power to cause rain to fall or to cease; to attract whomever they like, and to render him obedient to their will; to give information of whatever is concealed, and to reveal the secrets of the heart; to possess the knowledge of the good and the bad hidden in the minds; as well as that of the relations and history of the world; and upon the mirror of their hearts are reflected the lights of secrets, the djoti mandalam,¹ “the splendor of the universe.” When a misfortune happens, all the pious men assemble and hold council about the removal of it; they investigate the strange and astonishing events; they keep day and night their eyes shut, and, pondering, exercise their sagacity: these are called Dhyani.² Those who are not occupied with exterior things are called tyagî,³ and others who shun all intercourse with women and have no wife, take the title of Yatis; and there is a class who, with the same abnegation as the former, never mix with the people of the world, and never ask more from them than a small quantity of food: these are called Vaíragîs,¹ or Udasîs.² Others live in deserts and upon mountains, satisfied with fruits; the savage animals do them no harm; they are named Vanyasîs .³ When, among them, a child is born or a marriage takes place in the house of a family-man, they do not offer him their congratulation; and when a misfortune occurs, such as the death of a friend, they do not grieve or take mourning. A desire for generation, and a relish for meat and drink, inasmuch as may be requisite, is permitted, but beyond this prohibited; and whoever desires more is excluded from their society. This order of men among them is called Grihasta; another division of them is formed by the Avachháta,⁴ “emaciated by abstinence,” who are the adepts of this sect; if I were to relate every thing of them, several volumes would not be sufficient to contain my account.

In the Nababship of Kalinga exists a sect called Sûrwar (Sûryar), and another entitled Gundwar, They pay no tribute to any body; they worship the sun; from simplicity, they prefer brass and copper to gold, on account of bad smell. When one of them dies, they seize a stranger and kill him. They say that, as the Rái (prince) of Gund sits upon the ground, the lower people sit upon chairs, he being the lord of the earth and the others are not so.

The Chandra bakta,¹ or “worshippers of the moon,” call this planet one of the principal divinities, worthy of adoration and of worship; the regulation of the nether world is committed to his care; by the increase and decrease of the light of this heavenly body, the hours of night and day may be known; after the sun it is the greatest, and borrows its light from this great luminary, the access to which may also be obtained by the moon's mediation.² These sectaries form an image of the moon, and worship it as an object of their devotion: they never hurt a sentient being.

Another sect venerates other stars. There is one who pays homage to Agni, or fire, and says that fire is the pure essence of God, who is the sun himself: these are called Agni Pramána;¹ “the professors of fire.” They believe also the other stars proceed from its radiance, and that the earthly fire is an emanation of its rays; they venerate every sort of fire, through the mediation of which they think access to the sun may be obtained.

Another sect, the Pavana bhakta,² or “worshippers of the wind,” believe that the substance of God is air, and this also the intellectual soul.

The Jala bhakta,³ or “worshippers of water,” hold water to be the representative of the being of God, on which account they pay veneration to the rivers and flowing streams.

The Prithivi bhakta⁴ are “worshippers of the earth, which they believe to be the substance of God worthy of their adoration.

Another sect, called Tripújas,⁵ worship the three kingdoms of nature, in which every place and whatever presents itself to their view, becomes an object of their veneration.

The Manushya bhakta,¹ or “worshippers of mankind,” recognise the being of God in man; they know no being more perfect than mankind, and think that it contains nothing of a bad nature.

A particular sect is to be found in Kashíal, a place in the mountainous province of Kachmir. They worship idols; the son takes the property acquired by his father to himself; but leaves whatever he gains to his sons, so that it may be the firewood belonging to his father that may burn his body. When one of them dies, a barber from without the house goes before the dead, and then brings the message that such a one wants something for a meal, upon which they go to work to prepare it; and this society is kept up for some days; then, they burn the dead; after cremation, they erect over his ashes an image of stone, one half of which is male, and the other female; and when no son of his remains, they marry his wife with a column of the house, and whoever comes upon a visit of condolence, has intercourse with the woman until a son be produced, and to him the inheritance is bestowed. This sect have no regard for the life of animals.

Another sect exists in the mountains of Kachmir, with the name of Durds. Among them it is customary for brothers to have but one wife; occasionally they sell house, land, wife, and children; whoever buys the house owns all these; they also pawn their wife. Some of them, even when they become Muselmans, still adhere to this custom. They also do not spare animals.

Further to be noticed in Hindostan is the tribe of Dhaids, one of the lowest classes of men; they eat every thing but men; they worship the sun. The author of this book met one day in Sikakul, in the district of Kalinga, one of these men, whose name was Nága, and asked him: “Who are the best men among all the tribes?” The man answered: “The Dhaids,” and subjoined: “When they leave the body, they unite with God; when a Brahman dies, he becomes a cow; when a Muselman expires, he is transformed into a plant.” I enquired further: “If the Dhaids be so highly favoured by God, why should they eat every thing which they find, the flesh of cows, horses, mice, and the like?” The man replied: “It is because God loves this tribe that he gave them this command: ‘Eat whatever you like.’”

The Choharas are now to be mentioned, known in Hindostan as cleaners of privies and sweepers of the ground; and in the exercise of this profession they visit the houses. They say, their master was Shah Jhuna; he, in one hand a besom of gold, and in the other a basket of silver, cleans now in the fourth heaven the house of God, and sweeps the apartments of the Highest. This tribe too eat every thing as the Dhaids.

The Nânac-Panthians,¹ who are known as composing the nation of the Sikhs, have neither idols nor temples of idols. Nânac belonged to the tribe of Bédíans, who are Kshatriyas. His reputation rose in the time of Zehir-ed-din Baber Padshah² (who inhabits heaven). Before the victory of this king over the Afghans, Nânac was a grain-factor¹ of Daulet khan Lodi,² who ranked among the distinguished Umras of Ibrahim Khan, the sovereign of Hindostan.

A durvish came to to Nânac, and subdued his mind in such a manner that he, Nânac, having entered the granary, gave away the property of Daulet-Khan, and his own, whatever he found there and in his house, and abandoned his wife and children. Daulet Khan was struck with astonishment at hearing this, but, recognising in Nânac the mark of a durvish, he withheld his hand from hurting him.¹ In a short time Nanac made a great progress in piety; at first he took little nourishment; afterwards he allowed himself but to taste a little cow-milk; next a little oil; then nothing but water, and at last he took nothing but air: such men the Hindus call pavana haris.²

Nanac had a great number of disciples. He professed the unity of God, which is called the law of Muhammed, and believed the metempsychosis, or transmigration of the soul from one body to another. Having prohibited his disciples to drink wine and to eat pork, he himself abstained from eating flesh, and ordered not to hurt any living being. After him, this precept was neglected by his followers; but Arjun mal, one of the substitutes of his faith, as soon as he found that it was wrong, renewed the prohibition to eat flesh, and said: “This has not been approved by Nânac.” Afterwards, Hargovind, son of Arjunmal, eat flesh, and went to hunt, and his followers imitated his example.

Nanac praised the religion of the Muselmans, as well as the Avatars and the divinities of the Hindus; but he knew that these objects of veneration were created and not creators, and he denied their real descent from heaven, and their union with mankind. It is said that he wore the rosary of the Muselmans in his hand, and the Zunar, or the religious thread of the Hindus, around his neck.¹ Some of his distinguished disciples report of him more than can here find room.

One of these reports is, that Nanac, being dissatisfied with the Afghans, called the Moghuls into the country, so that in the year 932 of the Hejira (A. D. 1525) Zehir ed-din Baber padshah (who is in heaven) gained the victory over Ibrahim, the king of the Afghans.² They say also that Nanac, during one of his journeys,¹ finding himself one night in a fort, was absorbed in a vision of God. Children played around him, and some put their hands upon his body, without any motion being perceived in him; they sewed his eye-lids, his nostrils, and his flesh together, and tied his hands fast. When Nanac recovered his senses, he found himself in this state, and went to a neighbouring house, at the threshold of which he called out: “Ho! is there any body in the house who may free my eye-lids sewed together and my hands?” A handsome woman, having conducted him into the house, untied his hands and tore the threads by which his eye-lids were sewed together with her teeth asunder, on which account the color of the mark of the woman's caste remained upon Nanac's forehead. After his having left the house, the neighbours saw the mark, and supposed his having had an intimate connexion with the woman; wherefore she was abused by the people and repudiated by her husband.

This woman came one day to Nanac, and said: “I have, upon the way of God, rendered thee a service, and now they revile me for it.” Nanac answered: “To-morrow will the gate of the fort be shut, but shall not be opened unless thou appliest thy hand to it.” The next day, in spite of all efforts to open the gate, they could not succeed, and remained in great consternation. Men and beasts, far from water, could not go out to fetch it. The inhabitants addressed themselves to all men who had a reputation for sanctity, but their prayers were in vain. At last they had recourse to Nanac, and said: “O durvish, what is there to be done?” He answered: “The gate shall not be opened except by the hand of a woman who never lost her virtue with a stranger.” The inhabitants brought all the women who had a reputation for chastity to the gate of the fort, but it remained shut: on that account they sat down hopeless. At the time of evening prayer came at last the friend of Baba Nanac to the gate. The people laughed at her; her husband and her relations were ashamed and abused her. The woman, without listening to the speeches of the people, struck the gate with her hand and it opened. All men were astonished and ashamed: they fell at the feet of the woman.

The báni,¹ that is to say the poems, of Nânac, are, as it were, perfumed with devotion and wisdom, still more can this be said of his speeches about the grandeur and sanctity of God. All is in the language of the Jats of the Panjab, and Jat in the dialect of the Penjab, means a villager or a rustic.

Nânac's disciples are not conversant with the Sanscrit language. The precepts and regulations which Nânac established among them will be explained hereafter.

Nânac said in his poems that there are several heavens and earths; and that prophets, and saints, and those that are supposed to have descended from above (avatárs), and persons distinguished by piety, obtain perfection by zeal in the service of God; that whoever devotes himself to the veneration of God, whatever road he may choose, will come to God, and that the means to this is, to avoid hurting any living being.”

Nánac left children in the Penj-ab,² they are called Kartaris; but according to the opinion of some, he had no offspring. They say that, after Nánac's decease, his place was by his order occupied by the Guru Angad, of the Srín tribe of Kshatriyas; next succeeded the Guru Amaradas, of the tribe of the Bholáyí-Kshatriyas; after him came the Guru Rámadas , who was of the Sódahí-Kshatriyas, and also called the Srí-guru. Ráma-das, dying, left his dignity to his son Arjun mal. During the life of this Guru, the Sikhs, that is to say, his followers grew great in number and in faith. They said, Bábá Nânac is a god, and the world his creation; but Nánac in his poems reckons himself a servant of God, and he calls God Naránjen (Naráyana), Parabrahma, and Permaisher (Paramésvara), who is without a body, and has nothing corporeal, nor deigns to be united with a bodily frame. The Sikhs say that Nánac, in the same manner, had been without a real body, but visible by the power of his individuality,¹ and they believe that, when Nânac expired,² his spirit became incarnate in the person of Angad,¹ who attended him as his confidential servant. Angad, at his death, transmitted his soul into the body of Amara das;² and thus Guru, in the same manner, conveyed his spirit into the body of Ráma-das;³ whose soul transmigrated into the person of Arjunmal;⁴ in short, they believe that, with a mere change of name, Nânac the First became Nânac the Second, and so on, to the Fifth, in the person of Arjunmal. They say, that whoever does not recognise in Arjunmal the true Bábá Nânac, is an unbeliever; they have a number of tales about the founder of their sect, and assert that Bábá Nânac, in a former world, was the radja Janak.¹

When Sakha-daiv (Saha déva),² the son of Baiás (Vyasa), a rakhaisher (rakshasa), came to Janak, in order to learn from him the path of God, he found the rája, who had thrown one of his feet into the fire; men on foot and on horseback formed a file; Nawabs and Vizirs were busy about the affairs of the state; elephants and horses presented themselves to the view. Saha dév thought in his mind that such occupations and worldly concerns were unbecoming so pious a man. The rája, who was skilled in penetrating the hearts of others, found it out, and employing the power of magic, he caused fire to fall upon the houses, so that at last all the horses and fine palaces were burnt. The rája seemed neither to hear, nor to see, nor to care any thing about what happened, until the fire reached the house where he and Saha dév were. Janak did not throw one look upon it. The fire fell upon the wooden cup, which they call there kermandel,¹ and which Saha dév used for drinking water. He now, senseless, jumped from his place, and took hold of his kermandel. The rája smiled, and said to him: “All my people, and all this, my property, were burnt; my heart was not bound to them; wherefore I let them be consumed, and feel no pain about them; but thou, on account of thy kermandel, jumpedst senseless from thy place. It is now clear whose heart is bound to the things of this world.” Saha dèv was ashamed of his having been disturbed. This tale was heard from the followers of Nânac.

The history of Janak and of Saha dév is contained in the Jog bashest,² which is one of the principal books of the Hindus, in the following manner: Bisvámiter (Viśvamitra)³ in presence of the Rakshasas addressed this speech to Ráma chander: “O Rama chander, venerate thy father and mother; thou who issuedst from them so beautiful, thou hast accomplished thy task; by the goodness of thy nature and by the purity of thy character, thou hast polished the mirror of thy heart, and given it such a brightness, that the perfection o God is manifest in it; the success which a zealous disciple obtains, after many difficulties and pious exercises under the direction and instruction of a Rakshasa, during a long period of time, that success became thy share without trouble; thine became the science to be acquired; and thine is, even in this life, the emancipation in the form of Saha dèv, the son of Vyása. He, thy father, on account of the excellence of his pure form and of his divine nature, having come forth wise from the womb of his mother, without any assistance manifested his perfection, and on account of the clearness of his intellect, whatever on the way of his journey, was accessible to wisdom and excellence, was open to his looks, and no veil nor curtain remained before him; nevertheless, even with such advantages, he was inquisitive with Rakshasas and wise men in matters of theology, so that these personages, or pious penitents, gave him directions and lessons, and offered him their advice with alacrity. Thus am I ready to give thee some instruction, and communicate some precepts of wisdom to thee.” Therefore Rámachander inquired of Visvámiter: “As Saha dèv brought the full measure of wisdom from the body of his mother, and as his nature was endowed with such perfection, my prayer is, that you may favor me with an explicit account of him, and explain to me by what means he procured to himself the advice of the wise, and in what manner the Rakshasas imparted instruction to him.” Visvámiter replied: “O Rama chander, thy condition is as fortunate as that of Saha dèv; such was his dignity and excellence, that men, by listening to his tale, feel themselves emancipated, and are no more subject to be born again. O Ramachander, he too was impressed with the idea that in no condition this world is permanent, but that all that is seen changes every moment, and passes from one state to another. One guest arrives and comes into the world, another dies and goes out of the world; the one is agitated with distress, the other is quiet; the one exulting, the other overcome with grief; in short, whoever and whatever exists in this world is liable to change; there is not the least hope of firmness and steadiness, and nothing is worthy to bind our hearts. But that which is firm and steady, deserves that we attach our hearts to it, and that we perpetually are mindful of, and fix our thoughts and meditate upon it. Nothing however is firm and steady but the pure being of Brahma, that is to say, the supreme and true entity of God. Moreover, whoever directs his mind solely towards the divinity, will attain the knowledge of it, and render himself perfectly free from the desires of the heart, and from the pleasures of the body, which tend to swell and to fetter the soul. And like the bird Pápîhá,¹ which is fond of the water which falls from the cloud Náisán,² and does not taste of any other liquid from river or well, but thirsting only for drops from the cloud Náisan, is taken up with the search for them; thus Saha-dév, having made himself independent and free from all desires and allurements, was always immersed in the contemplation of Brahma, and having dissolved his own being in the reality of God, he knew Brahma, and attained the state of absolute repose and quietness. When he thus became a master of excellence, and as perfect as other rakshasas, then he felt the desire of his heart accomplished, and with a mind more splendid than the moon of a fortnight, he passed through the troubles of life, according to the words of the prophet: ‘With a heavenly mind upon the carpet of eternity.’”

One day, during a pleasure excursion in this world, he happened to reach the mountain Sumair,¹ that is Alburz, which in Arabia, is called Káf.² Upon the top of this mountain, he saw his father Vyása, who in a cavern was occupied with the contemplation of Brahma. Having saluted his father according to the custom of the Hindus, he asked him: “My worthy father, you who possess the knowledge of the supreme being, inform me in what manner this knowledge of the unity of God is diffused in the multitude, in what way the creatures of this world obtain their forms, to what period their existence is extended, what is the cause of their duration, and how their existence happens to be renewed several times, in order that I may possess proper notions of the state of this world, and that I may unravel this mystery to myself.”

Vyása, according to the desire of his son, explained the original state of the creation in clear words; but as the mind of the sage was involved in his own thoughts, and occupied with the contemplation of Brahma, he gave only a short account of the creation and of the development of this world to Saha dév, who did not derive an entire satisfaction from it. Vyása knew his thoughts, and said: “O son, my mind being immersed in the study and in the contemplation of God, I cannot, for want of time, impart to thee at present distinctly the account which thou desirest; but I will put thee in the way by which thou mayst arrive at the satisfaction of thy heart, and I will send thee to a man who will gratify thee. Know then, that in the country of Tirhut¹ is a town called Míthila, and there resides Janaka, the Rája, who is an excellent man, and possesses incomparable knowledge. Go to him, and engage him to satisfy thy heart. He will give thee an explicit account of the creation of the world from beginning to end.” Saha dév, according to the direction of his father, having left him, went into Tirhut, to the town of Mithila. He saw a city populous, and delightfully built; the soldiers content with the Rája, and the rayots (country people) happy and satisfied. Nobody complained at that time of his lot: in the evening every one laid down in his corner, and at day-break attended the court of Rája Janaka. The guards at the door observed Saha dév, tapasí, that is, a pious adorer of God, the son of Vyása, who stood at the gate and asked entrance. The rája Janaka, before he received the report of it, knew from inward knowledge and from the light of his mind, the purpose of Sahadév's mind; but in order to try his character, and to put his sincerity and his individuality to the test, he took no notice of the appearance of the stranger. Saha-dév, who had come near him, remained there one day and one night. On the next day, Janaka set about his business; the great and the vulgar appeared before him. This day too, and the following eight days and eight nights the rája did not address any question to Saha dév, who remained in his place without saying a word to any body. The eighth day, the rája Janak, when he saw that Saha-dév stood the test by shewing the mark of excellence and betraying no unsteadiness, he ordered that the stranger should be introduced into the interior of the palace and into the private apartments. Beforehand, he enjoined the maids of the bed-chamber and all the people of the palace that, on Sahadév's arrival, they should place before him all sorts of exquisite viands and agreeable perfumes, and whatever might allure the mind, and that they should endeavour to fascinate and to madden him. When Saha dév, by order of the rája Janaka, had entered the private apartments, handsome women brought before him from all sides delicious meats, and garments, and every thing that was attracting, and showed him great respect; after humble prostrations, they placed him in an elegant apartment. During other seven days and nights the rája did not appear before him. The people of the inner apartments, according to the rája's orders, did what they could in a thousand different ways to please him: they approached him, clasped their hands with his, rubbed his hands and feet; they served and tempted him by four principal means, namely: first, by the splendour of handsome maids; secondly, by offering him whatever may charm the senses; thirdly, by tokens of respect, and fourthly, by rubbing his hands and feet. Their intent was, if there remained any human feeling in him, to rouse it up. Saha dév, like a mountain that is not moved by any wind, stood firm; he took notice of nothing, and threw not even a look upon the beautiful moon-faced damsels about him. The rája Janaka, when informed that not the least trace of human feeling, lust, or desire had remained in the young man, and that he had freed himself from the fetters of error and sensuality, ran without hesitation from the place where he was, and touched the feet of Saha dév, saying: “Be thou happy, O rakshasa! who art united with the supreme spirit, and in whom has remained no trace of the qualities of water, earth, and of human nature, thou, who hast acquired whatever may be desirable to thy regeneration: for thou possessest the knowledge of God. Now, tell me, with what intention didst thou come to me, and what dost thou expect from our meeting?” Saha dév replied to the rája: “My intention in coming here was to obtain from thee a true account of the creation; in what manner this world came forth from the unity of the divine being, and how from him, the One, proceeded the duality and multiplicity of forms. Explain this to me, and impress it distinctly upon my mind. Although I received from my father some true notion of the creation of this world, and although, from the interior light and from the purity of heart which I have acquired by my devotion, the truth of the great question presents itself to my mind, yet I desire instruction from thee, and hope to receive it from thy tongue.” The rája Janak revealed to Saha dév, according to his wish, the history of the creation of the world. After that Saha dév said again to the rája: “O king! it is certain that between steady, wise, and learned men there is no contradiction; so does the account of the origin of the world, which I have heard from my father Vyása, and which I have well impressed upon my mind, agree with that which thy tongue has communicated to me. The substance of it is, that the creation of the world and the existence of its inhabitants took place by the will and by the disposition of Brahma, and according to the purpose of the supreme being, and that, when it is the desire of Brahma, the world is created, and when the supreme being finds it right to withdraw hímself from the circle of beings, the world returns to nothing, and its inhabitants are again enveloped with the veil of nothingness and voidness, and nothing remains but God. In like manner is the existence of all bodies connected with the will of the divine spirit, so that every being in dependence upon this will, and in conformity with the principles of its own nature, each time comes into, and goes out of, the world, or is born and dies. It is when the worldly desires, connections, and concerns are annihilated, that a man no more returns to nor leaves this world; birth and death upon this earth no more concern him, because the ties formed by his desires are broken.” Saha dév continued: “O rája, what thou hast said, is impressed upon my mind; but tell me, if there remains any thing, however minute it may be, of the account of this world; this too I wish to hear.” The rája Janaka said: “The account of the world is such as thou hast heard. That holy being, without a name, without a mark, without an equal, is pure and free from lust and desire, and his providence brings forth this world. He, the one perfect being, in what a multitude of beings does he not manifest himself! And if he removes from this creation the support of his will and of his providence, nothing remains but himself the only being. O Saha dév, thou who hast purified thy heart from the attachments of this body, and liberated it from all desires and seductive propensities, thou hast convinced thyself of the trut that, whatever appears before our eyes, is nothing, and has neither reality nor substance; what was to be performed, thou hast accomplished it; what was to be known, thou hast acquired it, and thou hast proved thyself true; on that account thou art, even in thy life-time, possessed of mukt (emancipation); that is to say: as a person, when the soul has left his body, is freed from the want of aliment, so hast thou, although still in the state of life and health, been liberated from all bodily wants.¹ Happy be thy life! blessed be thy age, O Saha dév!”

Viśvamitra continued: “O Ramachander, thou hast acquired the same knowledge as Saha dév; in the same manner as he abandoned all desires, subdued all the appetites of his five senses, and possessed perfect freedom, in the same manner thou must not permit any sort of desire to enter in thy heart.¹ There is no other means of mukt but this: to this thou must tend.”²

After that he addressed the rakshasas and all those who were present, in the following speech: “O rakshasas! and you who seek the road of God, know that, as Ramachander, by the purity of his nature and by the goodness of his disposition, raised himself to the highest dignity, not less ought to be the excellence of all the wise who are destined to the acquisition of mukt; thirsting for the knowledge of the highest, they ought to listen to the speeches of all those who devote themselves to God; nay, the truth and the faith, which Ramachander possessed, ought to be common, and productive of the same consolation and tranquillity to all those who, not in vain, aspire to wisdom and sanctity. I have imparted to Ramachander what I knew to be the best; now is the time of Bashest (Vas ishta), who attained such a perfection of a rakshasa, that nothing that is, was, and will be, is concealed to him, and he has no equal in the world.” So far goes the text of Jog bahest.”¹

The Guru Nánac, according to the belief of his followers, was in former times the rája called Janak, and united the dignity of a king with that of a saint. He called mankind to God. The author of this work heard from distinguished Sikhs that, when Bába Nánac appeared in the Sat-jog, a great number of Sikhs assembled around him. He sent a cow into the kitchen. When prepared, it was brought into the assembly; some ate of it, others were afraid to do so. The Guru prayed to God that the cow might rise again, and all those who had been afraid, beholding this miracle, approached him praying: “Now we shall eat whatever you order.” Nánac answered: “Not now be it so: mine and your engagement prevails in the Trèta-Jog.” Afterwards, at the revolution of the Trèta-jog, the Guru appeared. The disciples assembled; then a slaughtered horse was brought into the assembly in the manner before said. Some ate of it; others abstained from it. The Guru prayed, and the horse was brought to life. Those who had been afraid prayed as before. He replied again: “Your word and mine are engaged for the Dwápar-jog.” In this age they brought a slaughtered elephant into the assembly of his followers. The same happened as I said before, and he appointed them for the Kali-jog. In this age, they say, a man was brought into the assembly; whoever ate, became free; who abstained from it, remained subject to durance, and some of the Sikhs call Nánac the slave of God.

It is also related that, when Nânac died, in the Sat-jog, two roads opened before his soul: the one led to heaven, the other to hell. Nânac chose the latter, and having descended below, he brought all the inhabitants out of hell. The Lord God said to him: “These sinners cannot enter heaven; you must return into the world and liberate them.” On that account Nânac came to this world, and his followers are the former inhabitants of hell; the Guru comes and goes, until that multitude shall have found their salvation.

Except the zealots among the Sikhs, no man else believes Bábá Nânac a god. As to the rest, Nânac's followers condemn idolatry, and believe that all their Gurus are Nânacs, as was said before. They do not recite the mantras of the Hindus, they do not venerate their temples, nor do they esteem their Avatárs. The Sanscrit language, which according to the Hindus is the language of the gods, is not held in such great estimation by the Sikhs. Whatever it be, the number of these sectaries increased every where, so that, in the time of the Guru Arjunmal it became very considerable, and at last there was no place in any country where Sikhs were not to be found. They make no difference between Brahmans and Kshatriyas, for Nânac was a Kshatriya, and none of their Gurus was a Brahman, as stated above. Thus they subjected the Kshatriyas to the tribe of Jats,¹ who are an inferior caste of Baisas (Viśas). The deputies of the Gurus are besides frequently Jats. They honour equally Brahmans and Kshatriyas. The Guru is chosen at the discretion of his followers. It should be known that, in the time of the Afghan sultans, the Umras were called successors or deputies of Ali; finally, for the sake of brevity, the name of deputy (masnad) alone was used by the Hindus. The Sikhs call masnad, and also Rámadas, the Guru whom they esteem as a king of the true faith.

Before the fifth period no tribute was exacted from the Sikhs, but presents were given by them according to their own discretion, to their Gurus. Arjunmal sent in his time a person to the Sikhs of each town in order to collect a tribute; in that manner, the Sikhs accustomed themselves to the government of a masnad, or deputy. Their principal deputies, of whom there was a great number, elected on their part deputies, so that such substitutes were to be found in every place. The Sikhs created their Gurus, and established that an audasi,¹ or one that has abandoned the world, is not to be esteemed higher than any other man. On that account, some of their Gurus are inclined to agriculture, others to commerce, and to various trades and occupations. Each of them brings every year something, according to his means, to his Guru; the deputy receives a present without exacting it; others collect what is destined every year to the deputy, and deliver it to the chief man of the Guru, who disposes of it for his own maintenance and for other contingencies; no body incurs blame on account of presents (or contributions): being raised from all quarters, they are forwarded to the Guru.

In the month of February, when the sun is in the sign of the Bull, the subordinate Gurus come to their chief with those of their followers who choose to accompany them. At the time of taking leave, each receives a turban as a present from the deputy.

Having recorded truly something of the Sikhs in general, I will now give an account of the chiefs of this tribe whom I have known myself. In the sixth period lived Sri Guru Har-govind, the son of the Guru Arjun mal. The Padshah Nur-ed-din Jehangir,¹ now an inhabitant of heaven, called to his court Arjun-mal, on account of his having offered prayers for the king's son Khusro, who had rebelled against his father. Khusro having been taken, the king ordered the imprisonment of Arjun-mal, and wanted to extort a large sum of money from him. The Guru was helpless; they kept him a prisoner in the sandy country of Lahore, until he died of the heat of the sun and of ill treatment. This happened in the year 1015 of the Hejira (A. D. 1606).¹ In like manner the king banished from Hindostan the Shaikh Nezam Thánasír, because he had been connected with, and had prayed for, his son Khusro.

After Arjunmal followed his brother Baratha,² whom his followers called “the benevolent Guru.” Now, in the year 1055 of the Hejira (A. D. 1645), the Guru Harjayi occupies his place. They both professed the adoration of one God. The disciples of the Guru Har-govind, son of Arjunmal, called these Gurus Mainá ()³ which among them is an oprobrious name. After the decease of Arjunmal, his son, Har-govind, also made pretensions to the khalifat (deputyship), and obtained the place of his father.⁴ Hargovind was always attached to the stirrup of the victorious Jehangir. He became involved in many difficulties; one of them was, that he appropriated to himself the pay due to the soldiers in advance; he carried also the sword against his father; he kept besides many servants, and was addicted to hunting. Jehangir, on account of the money due to the army, and of the mulet imposed upon Arjunmal (as was said before), sent Har-govind to the fort of Gwalior,¹ where he remained imprisoned twelve years. He was not permitted to eat a good meal. During that time the deputies and other Sikhs used to come and bow before the walls of the fort. At last, moved by pity, the king granted him liberty. After Jehangir's death, Har-govind entered the service of his majesty Amír-ul Múnenîn Abu-ul-muzafer shaháb ed-din Muhammed saheb Keran sani shah Jehan, the victorious king. When the Guru returned to Batnesh, which is a district of the Penjab, he attached himself to Yar Khan, the eunuch, who held the office of a Foujdar² in the Nawabí of the Penjab, and whom he assisted in the administration. Har-govind returned to Rámadaspúr, where the Gurus Rámadas and Arjun-mal had built great edifices and dug tanks. There he sustained an attack of the army which Shah jehan, the shadow of God, sent against him, and the Guru's property was then plundered. From thence he fled to Kartarpúr; there too war reached him, and on this occasion Mír Badherah, and Páindah Khan, the son of Fattah Khan Ganáida, found their death. Before and after this, he encountered great dangers of war, but with the aid of God he escaped unhurt, although he lost his property. It is related by one, Sadah by name, that in this war a man aimed a blow at the Guru, who parried it, and struck him with his blade, saying: “Not in that manner, but so the sword is used;” and with one blow he made an end of his foe. One of the companions of the Guru asked the author of this work: “What was the purport of the words by which the Guru accompanied his blow?” I said: “It was to give instruction, as it belongs to a Guru to teach also how to strike a blow with a sword; for a Guru is called a teacher: he did not strike out of anger, which would have been blameable.” At last he retired from the war of Kartarpúr to Bhagwárah, and because there, in the vicinity of Lahore, he met with difficulties, he betook himself from thence in haste to Gerait púr, which lies in the mountainous district of the Penjab, and was then dependent upon the rája Tárachand, who had never paid homage to the pádsháh Shah Jehan. The inhabitants of this country adore idols. Upon the summit of a fortified mountain, they raised an image of the Déva, named Nâina (Naráyana). Rájas and other eminent persons made pilgrimages to this place. At the time when the Guru came there, one of the Sikhs, called Bhairo, who accompanied him, entered the temple and struck off the nose of the idol. The rájas, having been informed of it, came to the Guru to complain of the act, and named the man who did it. The Guru called Bhairo before him. The Sikh denied the deed. The servants of the rájas declared: “We know the man.” He replied: “O rájas, ask you the god: if he tells you my name, kill me.” The rájas said: “You blockhead! how shall the god speak?” Bhairo laughed and answered: “Now it is clear who is the blockhead: if the god cannot defend his head, nor point out the man who struck him, what benefit do you expect from him, and why do you venerate his strength?” The rájas remained silent and confounded. From this time, the disciples of the Guru increased considerably, and in this mountainous country, as far as the frontiers of Thibet and Khota, the name of Muselman was not heard.

The author of this work heard what follows from the tongue of Guru Har-govind: “A mighty rája exists in the north of this mountainous country. One day he sent me an ambassador who asked information, saying: ‘I have heard that there is a town named Delhi; what is the name of its rája, and whose son is he?’ I was astonished to hear that he did not know even the name of Amír ul Múmenín saheb Karan sáni (Jehangír).” The Guru had eight hundred horses in his stable, three hundred troopers on horseback, and sixty men with fire-arms were always in his service. Among these some carried on commerce, and other trades and occupations. Whoever was a fugitive from his home took refuge with him.

The Guru believed but one God. A person desired from him some account of the creation and the constitution of this world. The Guru said: “The universe is an appearance without reality, and an unsubstantial manifestation of God, the highest being; and all bodies, as well as gods, are an idle illusion. I will tell thee, said he, a story of old times: There was a king who went to hunt the hátah jori, which in the Turkish language is called kamer ghah, and in Persian barah shikar, ‘a fawn of the chace.’ A deer came into the circle of the hunting party. The king said: ‘On whose side the deer will come forth, let him not return before me until he has taken it with his hand.’ By fate, the animal came out on the side of the king. Khusro run after it until he was far from the army, and reached a place where, on account of thick wood, he could not find a path. The king was glad to think the deer would now return towards him; but when he came near it, there was a small opening through which the game escaped. The king sharply pushed on his horse, which, contracting itself, passed through the thicket; but the pádsháh was taken by two branches, and his arms and feet fastened so as if it had been purposely brought about. He remained two days in such a state, until two persons, a man and a woman, who were gathering wood, arrived near him. The woman said to her husband: ‘Look! the king has hanged a thief.’ The man replied: ‘This is not a place for hanging; we must examine it nearer.’ When they had approached, they saw and recognised the king, and said to each other: ‘If we release him, it will be of use to us.’ The woman observed: ‘He is the king; once made free, what advantage will he grant us for it? If he promises to marry our daughter, we will release him.’ They said so to the king, who promied what they desired. After that, they liberated him, brought him to their house, and gave him their daughter. He remained there some time, and then joined his army. When he wanted to enter his palace, the door-keeper struck him with his stick; the king was seized with a trembling and awoke. He saw the high throne and the servants before him waiting for his orders. By this dream he was aroused from the emptiness of his illusion; he knew that the world is but an appearance without reality; and that, whatever we experience, being awake, is likewise nothing more than a dream. He found that the diversity of forms and of distinct bodies is but an image of existence, and that in truth there is but one real being, one praiseworthy, and raised above all others by superlative excellence.”

One of the Brahmans was called Déva, and counted himself among the wise. He visited the Guru, and seated himself one day upon the bed of Bába Jév, who was the son of a Guru. The people said: “Do not sit there.” He asked: “Why not?” They answered: “This is the place of the Guru.” He said: “Is perhaps the figure of a Guru not that of a man, or have I not a rational soul manifest in me? or can I not enjoy what another eats or drinks?” This speech came to the ears of the Guru Hargovind. He called that man before him, and said: “O Déva! is not the whole world but one being?” He replied: “It is.” The Guru pointed to an ass, and asked: “Do you know what this is?” Déva replied: “You are one with God, therefore you are also this.” The Guru laughed, and was not at all angry. Déva wished to marry his own sister; the people said: “This is forbidden.” He answered: “If it were forbidden, the junction of the sexual parts would be impossible. Thus, because it is not God's will that we should rise up in the air, he withheld from us the faculty of flying.”

The Sikhs venerated the Guru Har-govind as a god, and believed that he has passed through six incarnations. Perah Kaivan, a Yazdanian, was moved by the reputatation of the Guru, and came to visit him.

The Guru recognised him, and showed him great respect. Upon that account Perah Kaivan left him. A week had scarcely passed after he was gone, when Har-govind died, on a Sunday, the third day of the Moherram, in the year 1055 of the Hejirah (A. D. 1645). When they had placed his corpse upon the pyre, and when the fire rose up in high flames, a ràjapút called Rájarama, who had been his servant, precipitated himself into the fire, and walked several paces in the midst of the flames, until he reached the feet of the corpse, and having laid his face upon the soles of the Guru's feet, he did not move until he expired. After him, the son of a Jat, who was in the service of Har-govind's son-in-law, leaped into the fire. Many other Sikhs wished to follow his example, but the Guru Har rayi forbade it. Dáulet Khan Kaksal says:

The Guru Har-govind, in a letter to the author of this work, gave himself the title of Nânac, which was his right distinction. I saw him in the year 1053 of the Hejirah (A. D. 1643) in Kirtpúr. The Guru Har-ráyi was the grandson of the said Guru;¹ his father was Garuta (or Guru daitya), who is known under the name of Bábá Jév. The Guru Har-govind wished first to transmit his place to his son Garuta, or Bábá Jév; but the Guru Nághura, one of the Sikhs, brought his daughter to Bábá Jév. The Bábá wished to send her to his private apartments. His wife, the mother of Har-ráyi, complained of it to Har-govind, her father-in-law, who, having heard her, said to Bábá Jév: “Having given to Nághura the name of my son, I own him as such, and his daughter cannot go to you, my son.” Nághura refused to take back his daughter; nor would Bábá Jév give her up. The Guru Har-govind then said: “May neither happiness nor success ever attend this husband and his wife!” Upon that, the same day, Bábá Jév threw away his nuptial dress, and sent the daughter of the Guru Nághura untouched back to her house. In consequence of this event, Har-govind showed a more particular esteem for his grandson Har-ráyi,¹ the son of Bábá Jév; he gave him the name of his father, Bábá Jév, and appointed him his successor. Invested with this dignity, Har-rayi remained one year in Kirtpúr. When in the year of the Hejirah 1055 (A. D. 1645) Najábet Khan, the son of Sharogh Mirza, by order of the pádsháh Shah-jehan, invaded with an army the land of the rája Tarachand, and made the rája a prisoner, the Guru Har-ráyi betook himself to Thapal, which town is situated in the district of the rája Keramperkás, not far from Sirhind.

The Sikhs call Har-ráyi the seventh Guru. He was a great friend of the author of this work. I will therefore give an account of some among the principal chiefs whom I knew, as well as of some customs of this people. The Sikhs distinguish also the deputies of their Gurus by the name of Rámdais, that is to say, “servants of God, or of an idol.” Jahandas was one of the pretenders to the dignity of a Guru; he was a man high and proud in his speeches, not agreeable to any, indifferent to good and bad that might happen to him. One day he got a wound on his foot. Har-govind told him: “Do not envelop too much, and raise your foot.” According to this injunction, he suspended and uncovered his foot during three months. When the Guru was informed of it, he said to him: “Cover your foot; what I told you was intended for the healing of your wound: do not rest on your foot for some days.” One day the Guru said to him: “Tell the Sikhs to bring wood into the kitchen, that they may gain some remuneration.” Jahandas did not appear the next day, as if he had not during one day and a half awoke from sleep. The people, suspecting some derangement of his brain, thought he had absented himself. When they, with the Guru, looked after him, they found him with a bundle of wood on his shoulder. The Guru said: “I have not ordered you to bear that.” He replied: “You gave your orders to the Sikhs; a Sikh am I, and know not to be any thing higher than they are.” Another day the Guru went into a garden, and said to Jahandas: “Remain at the door.” By accident, the Guru returned home by another door; Jahandas remained three days on his feet, until Har-govind, who was informed of it, called him away.

Har-govind had a disciple called Badhata, who sent a person to bring corn from a field where it was lying cut. This man gave every thing away, and then said to Badhata who had sent him: “You distributed every thing, as a father, to the poor; I did the same in imitation of your example, and dispense you from the remuneration which I should have gained by bringing the corn to you.” Badhata was at first a thief, and his disciples exercised later the profession of thieving; they showed themselves very obedient to the orders of their master, and believed that stealing for him deserved praise and recompense. Har-govind, according to the Sikhs, declared that on the day of the last judgment, his disciples will not have to account for their actions.

Sadah, a disciple of the Guru, went by his orders to bring horses from Balkh to Irak. He had a son who had fallen sick. They said to him: “You are now in the town of Balkh, and but one day's journey from home: go to see your son.” He answered: “If he should die, there is wood enough in the house to burn him: I went about the Guru's business, and will not return.” The son died, but he did not return. At last he bought three capital horses of Irak; but Khalíl Bég, a tyrant, took hold of them, which fell hard upon him. In the same year, he lost his only son and heir, and saw himself deprived of strength and honor. Sadah was a man neither gladdened by good nor afflicted by bad fortune. The author of this work was once his companion on a journey from Kabul to the Penjab. The belt of my coat broke; Sadah gave me immediately his zunnar to serve me as a belt. I said to him: “Why do you this?” He answered: “To tie the zunnar purports an engagement to serve another; as often as I render some service to friends, may I resign my zunnar for it.

A Sikh asked the Guru Har-govind: “In the absence of my Guru, what other shall I find?” He replied: “Whichever of the Sikhs comes to your house under the name of a Guru, him you may take for yours.” It is the custom among the Sikhs that, whatever demand they have, they can state it in the assembly of the Sikhs to the Guru, to whom they offer whatever present they have, or a coin, and in so doing they join their hands together, and proffer prayers to him, that he may be favorable to them. The Guru states then his demand in the Sangat (Sangátí),¹ that is to say, in the assembly of the Sikhs. This custom exists also among the Sipásian, or Izedanian. The belief of this people is, that an assembly is certainly capable of achieving every thing, inasmuch as the minds act with their united strength.

Among the Sikhs there is nothing of the religious rites of the Hindús; they know of no check in eating or drinking. When Pertábmal, a Jnání, “wise,” Hindu, saw that his son wished to adopt the faith of the Muselmans, he asked him: “Why dost thou wish to become a Muselman? If thou likest to eat every thing, become a Guru of the Sikhs, and eat whatever thou desirest.”

The Sikhs believe that all the disciples of a Guru go to heaven. Whoever takes the name of Guru is received in the house of a Sikh. It is related, that a thief introduced himself once under the title of Guru, in the house of a Sikh, and was treated as such. In the morning the Sikh went out to prepare something better for his guest. The thief saw many jewels worn by the wife of the Sikh, and having killed her immediately, and taken the precious things, he fled. Upon his way he met with the master of the house, who by force brought him back. The Sikh, when they returned to the house, found his wife dead. The thief, seeing every thing discovered, confessed the truth. The Sikh replied: “You have done well.” He then shut the door of the house, and said to his neighbours: “My wife is sick: she ate nothing of the meal which she had prepared.” Urging the thief to be gone, he did not take the jewels from him, but made him a present of them. He finally burnt his wife.

They also relate what follows: a kalender was in the house of a Sikh. One day the kalender said to the wife of the Sikh: “For the sake of a Guru, satisfy my desire.” The woman replied: “I am the property of another; have patience.” The kalender, out of fear, did not return to the house of the Sikh, who asked: “Why does the durvísh not visit me any more?” The woman told him what had happened. The Sikh said: “Why did you refuse to yield to his desire?” The woman went out, and having brought the kalender back, permitted every thing to him. When, in the month of February, the Sikhs assembled at the house of the Guru (who lived before the time of Har-govind), he threw an angry look at the kalender, and said: “Him have I struck.” The kalender was stigmatised.

The following anecdote is moreover reported. A Guru saw a speaking parrot, and praised him much. A Sikh heard this, and went immediately to the proprietor of the parrot, who was a soldier, and asked him for the bird. The soldier said: “If you give me your daughter, you may have the parrot.” The Sikh consented. The soldier laughed, and added: “Give me your wife too, and take the bird.” The Sikh did not refuse; he conducted the soldier to his house, and delivered his wife and daughter to him. When the soldier came home, and told his wife what had happened, she was so angry with him that he left the parrot in the hands of the Sikh, to whom he returned his wife and daughter. The Sikh, joyful, lost no time to gratify the Guru. Such customs prevailed among the Sikhs before the time of Har-govind.¹