Rawżat al-ṣafā fi sīrat al-anbiya' va-'l-muluk va-'l-hulafa' - The Rauzat-us-Safa (Rehatsek), Part 1, Volume 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

EDITOR’S PREFACE.

MUCH might be written on the subject of translation, and of its influence upon the progress of knowledge and civilization. The Christian religion, as it has been handed down to us, is more or less based on translations from various languages; while our English Bible has been more translated than any other book extant.

In former times, during the reign of Naushirwan, a Persian monarch of great renown [A.D. 530-578], there was some intercourse between Persian and Byzantine philosophers; several books on logic and medicine were translated from Greek into Persian, and later on these were done into Arabic.

At the commencement of the rule of the Abbasides [A.D. 750], considerable attention was paid to the subject. Eight years before the seventh Khalif Mâmun [A.D. 812-833] ascended the throne, many Greek and Syriac manuscripts had been collected in Baghdad. These were all preserved there in the library which was called ‘The House of Wisdom,’ until Mâmun began to utilize them by means of translations. A great many Oriental manuscripts are now preserved in the British Museum and other institutions in Great Britain, and it is hoped that an attempt will be made some day to get some of them translated for the benefit of the public. The Khalif Mâmun established a regular translation department, and translators were employed in doing works from the Greek, the Syriac, and the Persian into Arabic.

The great Emperor Akbar, who ruled in India from A.D. 1556 to 1605, was also much interested in this matter. Both the ‘Mahabharata’ and the ‘Ramayana,’ the Lilavati, the History of Krishna, and an erotic Kashmiri work, were by his orders translated from Sanscrit into Persian. The Commentaries of Baber from the Chaghtai, or pure Turkish dialect, and the large geographical dictionary ‘Moajum-ul-buldan’ from the Arabic, were both translated into Persian. In addition to the translation work, Akbar, the most enlightened sovereign that India ever possessed, was a patron of every kind of literature and of art.

In England, one of the most valuable translations ever made after that of the Bible was ‘The Qurân,’ by George Sale, in A.D. 1734. This book has always held its own as a standard work, and the preliminary discourse, divided into eight sections, and preceding the translation of the hundred and fourteen chapters of the Qurân, contains most valuable information about the Arabs, Muhammad, and the Muhammadan religion generally. Savary, Rodwell, Palmer, and others have also produced good translations of the same work, and much facilitated its perusal by dividing the various chapters into verses, Sale not having made any such division.

Though a society was established for the encouragement of learning in England in A.D. 1736, in which Sale was interested, and of which he was one of the founders, nothing seems to have been done by this Society in the way of translation, which may, perhaps, be attributed to his death in November of that year. In A.D. 1828, however, the Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland was started under very distinguished patronage. This Society worked well for fifty years, publishing translations from fifteen different languages, and then collapsing from apathy, neglect, and want of funds. It is true that some of the translations published by and at the expense of this Society were not, perhaps, all judiciously chosen; still the list of them, given in ‘Arabic Authors’ [Wm. Heinemann, London, 1890], shows that some at least are most valuable, and have been of the greatest assistance to all students of Oriental literature.

The old Fund collapsed. It was proposed to revive it, and to continue the publication of a series of translations of well-selected works. Attempts were first made in the direction of donations and annual subscriptions, but failed. Thinking it a pity that the matter should be allowed to drop, on the 12th June, 1891, I addressed the following letter to the Secretary of the Royal Asiatic Society:

‘I have the honour to request that you will kindly lay this letter before the Council of the Royal Asiatic Society on the subject of the old Oriental Translation Fund, and the continuance of the work undertaken by it.

‘The attempt to revive the old Fund by donation and subscription has failed for want of support from the public generally. It is now proposed to endeavour to proceed with the work in the following way:

‘1st. That any member of the Asiatic Society, wishing to print and publish translations of the standard works of Oriental authors, or to edit such translations done by other persons, can do so at his own expense, under the patronage of the Royal Asiatic Society, provided that the name of the author, and of his work, be submitted to the Council of the Society for their previous sanction.

‘2nd. That all such translations be printed and published uniformly [that is, with the same type and bound in the same way], under the denomination of Oriental Translation Fund, New Series, and under the patronage of the Royal Asiatic Society.

‘3rd. That the Translator or Editor can have these books sold or distributed at the rooms of the Asiatic Society in Albemarle Street, on such terms as may be hereafter settled.

‘4th. That the books so published can be advertised in the Society’s Journal free of charge.

‘5th. That as the Translator or Editor both prints and publishes at his own expense, he may therefore retain the copyright of any work brought out under these proposals.

‘The Council will perceive that the above is a rough sketch only of what can be afterwards improved or modified. For the present I would only ask the Council:

‘1st. To sanction generally these proposals.

‘2nd. To appoint a permanent Committee to settle details about the type, size of the volume, nature of the binding, etc., and other matters connected with these proposals, and to whom all proposals connected with publication should be referred.

‘3rd. To sanction my beginning the series at once with the publication of a complete translation by Mr. E. Rehatsek of the first part of Mirkhond’s “Rauzat-us-safa,” generally called “The Garden of Purity,” containing the Histories of Prophets, Kings and Khalifs. This work is now ready for the press, and will fill three volumes of, say, three to four hundred pages each.

‘It is advisable to start the printing and the publishing of these volumes as soon as possible, to show that the members of the Royal Asiatic Society are anxious to give the undertaking at all events a trial. The proposals will cost the Society nothing except the use of their name and patronage, while any expenses incurred by the Society will be defrayed by their deducting a percentage from the receipts of the sale of these works.’

On the 29th of June, 1891, the Council of the Royal Asiatic Society were good enough to sanction the above proposals. A Committee was appointed to settle certain details, and the publication of the present volume is the commencement of the undertaking. It is proposed to publish in six volumes the whole of the two first parts of Mirkhond’s History, details of which will be found both in the Translator’s and Author’s Prefaces.

Of Mirkhond himself it may be briefly stated that he was born in A.D. 1432, and belonged to a family of Sayyids settled for many generations in Bukhara. His father Sayid Burhan-ud-Din Khâvend Shâh, a man of great learning and piety, left that place for Balkh, where he died. Mirkhond himself spent most of his life in Hirat writing his book, and died there A.D. 1498 at the age of sixty-six. His lengthy work is one of the standard Persian histories, and the manuscripts of it, both whole and in part, are numerous in the British Museum and the Bodleian Library at Oxford and elsewhere. Dr. Rieu’s excellent catalogue of the Persian manuscripts in the former place, and Professors Sachau and Ethe’s list of Persian and other manuscripts in the latter place, give full information about them.

The present volume, not hitherto translated into any European language, contains the Moslem version of our Bible stories, beginning with the creation of Genii before Adam and ending with the death of Aaron. To prevent the repetition of such phrases as ‘whose name be exalted,’ ‘whose name be praised,’ ‘upon whom blessing,’ ‘benediction and salutation to him,’ ‘may his soul be sanctified,’ ‘the mercy of Allah be on him,’ generally used after names in Moslem literature, the first letters of the words of these sentences only have been inserted, so that these will be easily understood. The chapters and verses of many quotations from the Qurân, and of allusions to many matters in our Bible, will be found in the footnotes.

As regards the Bible and the Qurân, both the Christian and the Muhammadan stand on the same ground. In each religion the really orthodox believer is of opinion (and this opinion does not allow a single matter of doubt) that the Book he believes in is inspired, and contains the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth from beginning to end. While the Bible gives us the Jewish and Christian view of these matters, the Qurân gives us the Muhammadan view; and though some of the stories will be found to be exactly alike, Moslem tradition often enters into far greater details than those given in the Old Testament. It is both possible and probable that when Muhammad first began his career as a reformer, preacher and apostle, he was buoyed up with the hope that he might bring both the Jews and Christians into his fold. On this account he introduced into his Qurân so many of the persons mentioned both in the Old and New Testaments, along with many details obtained from Rabbinical and Christian sources. Later on at Madinah, when he found that he could do nothing with the infidels, as he then called them, he seems to have adapted his religion to the manners and customs of the Arabs. As, however, full details of his life will be given in the fourth and fifth volumes of this series, it is unnecessary to make further allusion to the matter here.

The translator of these volumes, Mr. Edward Rehatsek, of Bombay, is well known for his knowledge of Oriental languages and Oriental literature. A short sketch of his career was given in the preface to ‘Persian Portraits’ (Quaritch, 1887), but this hardly did justice to his general ability and his exceeding great industry. These will, however, be better understood after a perusal of the present work, and of others which will follow to complete his series of translations from the Persian and the Arabic. He is now an old man, but his declining years will be solaced with the thought that his labours have at last been fully recognised and laid before the public in a fitting and becoming manner. It remains, then, for the public to do their duty, which is to purchase, as they come out, the copies of these volumes of translations, and which are to be obtained at the rooms of the Royal Asiatic Society, 22, Albemarle Street.

F. F. ARBUTHNOT.

18, PARK LANE,
LONDON, W.

TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE.

THE reason why Europeans generally obtain no correct perception of the religion and early history of the Muhammadans must chiefly be attributed to the means by which they become acquainted with them; namely, to books written from a European standpoint of civilization and religious view, in a manner not impartial, but generally offensive to Moslems, and therefore attributed by them to a spirit of infidelity, which taints, according to their opinion, more or less, the sentiments of all writers on these subjects who are not themselves Moslems. It is, of course, natural that European authors are biassed by their own associations, and Muhammadans by theirs. The latter have likewise been much influenced by the religious opinions which in most instances guided them, and made them partial in the composition of their early historical and religious works to such an extent that they neither sought nor used, but deliberately and obstinately rejected, all information not in conformity with the Qurân, which is, according to them, a revelation from God, and to differ therefrom makes any man an infidel. Hence the perusal of a work of this kind, and of very great authority among the professors of Islâm, composed by a celebrated Persian Muhammadan author on the principle of exclusion just alluded to, is calculated to impart to the reader a far superior and more accurate knowledge of what Moslems believe to be true than any book of European origin possibly could do.

It is certain that he who desires to obtain some knowledge of the genius of Islâm, and wishes to see with Moslem eyes, ought not to be satisfied with the perusal of books written by unbelievers in a spirit of unbelief, but must endeavour to gain access to information destined for Moslems, and enshrined in their own authors. A perception of this desideratum has resulted in the production of the work now before the reader.

Scriptural history among the professors of Islâm agrees in some respects with Biblical accounts, but is in others totally different, as will abundantly appear in this work. These points of contact and of discrepancy may also be ascertained in detail by anyone willing to collate the Christian with the Muhammadan standard of religion. The Qurân is the origin and source of all sacred and profane history among Moslems. It may, indeed, be explained and amplified by tradition, but on no account contradicted, under pain of incurring the stigma of infidelity; it is by all Muhammadans believed to be a divine revelation, but promulgated by a human being—Muhammad, the apostle of Allah. Apart from opinions about the divine element—there being already too many published on all sides of the question— something may be mentioned in this place about the human element in connection with the Christian doctrines alluded to in the Qurân. The prophet was on very familiar and good terms with Warakah Bin Nowfil, the Christian cousin of his first wife Khodayjah, who is on all hands admitted to have been a man of some learning and intellect. This individual Muhammad consulted after the first chapter of the Qurân (in the present order the ninety-sixth, ‘Congealed blood,’ etc.) had been revealed to him, and Warakah, struck more than ever by the character of Muhammad, with whom he had been associated often and intimately, predicted that he would become the prophet of the Arabs. This much we gather from Muhammadan authors. It is likewise certain that during the conciliatory policy followed by the prophet in the beginning of his career, his intercourse with both the Christians and the Jews was of a friendly nature,^* although in course of time, when he had become powerful, he accused them of having falsified the Old and the New Testament.^* The Muhammadans possess not only their own narratives about the principal persons mentioned in the Bible, but they also believe that the number of prophets^† amounts to many thousands. They possess accounts of Abraham, of Moses, of David, of Joseph, and even of our Lord Jesus, as will be seen during the course of this work; but, as already observed, all are dealt with according to Muhammadan views, discarding Christian sources of information. Sharastani and others have given accounts of the various religions of the world, and among them also those of Christianity and Judaism. The elaborate and voluminous treatises of the Muhammadans on theology and tradition could not, however, altogether disregard the two religions which their prophet claims to have superseded by his own, and the following notice concerning the tenets of the Jews and Christians, translated from a small Arabic work of the fourteenth century, the original of which was published at Calcutta in the ‘Bibliotheca Indica,’ vol. vi., No. 21, 1849, will show the views generally entertained by Moslems about them:

‘As to the Jews, they are divided into many sects, the principal of which are the Rabbani, the Sâmari, and the Qarravi, who agree on the prophetship of Moses, of Aaron, and of Joshua, upon whom be blessing and peace; and on the Torah [Pentateuch] and its commandments, though its copies are changed and differ; but they extract from it six hundred and thirteen ordinances, according to which they worship. The Rabbani and Qarravi differ from the Sâmari, inasmuch as they acknowledge other prophets besides the ones just mentioned, from whom they take nineteen books, which they add to the five books of the Torah. They consider twenty-four books to be prophetical, and divide them into four sections. The first is the Torah, which consists of five books. In the first the beginning of the creation and history from Adam to Joseph—upon whom be blessing and peace—are recorded. In the second the enslaving of the Israelites by the Egyptians, the coming of Moses, u. w. bl. a. p., the destruction of Pharaoh, the establishment of the ark of the covenant, the events in the wilderness, the Emamship of Aaron, u. w. bl. a. p., the promulgation of the decalogue, and the hearing by the people of the words of Allah the Most High, are related. The third book contains a summary of the commandments. The fourth the number of the people, the distribution of the land to them, the circumstances of the envoys sent by Moses to Syria, the history of the [falling of] Mannah, the quails, and of the cloud. The fifth contains the numbers of the commandments of the Torah to elucidate the summary account; it also records the decease of Aaron and of Moses, and the succession of Joshua, u. w. bl. a. p.

‘The second section is divided into four books, the first of which is that of Joshua, where the cessation of the Mannah, and their eating of the fruits of the earth after the celebration of the sacrifice, the war of Joshua with the Canaanites, his conquering the country, and dividing it by casting lots, are recorded. The second is known as the book of Judges, and contains their history, with that of the children of Israel during the period of the first temple. The third is of Samuel, u. w. bl. a. p.; it contains the prophecy and government of Talût [Saul], the story of David’s killing of Jalût [Goliath]; and the fourth is known as the book of Kings, which contains the history of the Kings David and Solomon, u. w. bl. a. p., and of others; the division of the kingdom among the tribes, the wars, the first emigration, the advent of Nebuchadnezzar, and the demolition of the holy temple.

‘The third section contains four books, called “The Last.” The first of them is Isaiah, u. w. bl. a. p., in which the threats of Allah the Most High to the children of Israel are recorded, as also what is to happen in the future; good news to the patient are promulgated, as well as an allusion to the second temple on the delivery [from captivity] by means of King Cyrus. The second is by Jeremiah, u. w. bl. a. p., and mentions the total destruction of the temple, with the emigration to Egypt. The third is Ezechiel, u. w. bl. a. p.; it contains natural, astronomical, and mystic wisdom, the description of the temple, with the history of Gog and Magog. The fourth consists of twelve books, with forebodings of wars and earthquakes, as well as of other things; it points to what is expected to happen, as also to the resurrection; it records the prophecy of Jonah, u. w. bl. a. p., his drowning and being swallowed by the whale; the repentance of the people, and the advent of the enemy [at Nineveh and its subversion]; the prayer of Habakkuk, and the prophecy of Zecharias, u. w. bl. a. p.; an allusion to the great day [of judgment], and the glad tidings of the coming of Khizer, u. w. bl. a. p.

‘The fourth section is called “The Books,” and contains four of them. The first contains the history of Adam up to the second temple, the establishment of the tribes and of the nations of the world. The second, the Psalms of David, u. w. bl. a. p., which amount to the number of one hundred and fifty, and consist partly of requests and partly of prayers about Moses, u. w. bl. a. p., and others. The third contains the story of Job, u. w. bl. a. p., with rhetorical disputations. The fourth has wise parables of Solomon, u. w. bl. a. p. The fifth, the history of sages before the kings. The sixth contains Hebrew songs of Solomon, u. w. bl. a. p., and dialogues between the soul and the intellect. The seventh is called “The Collection of the Wisdom of Solomon,” u. w. bl. a. p.; it consists of exhortations to seek intellectual joys, which are lasting, and to scorn sensual ones, which are perishable; praises of Allah, the Most High, and admonitions concerning Him. The eighth is called “The Lamentations of Jeremiah,” u. w. bl. a. p., and is divided into five chapters according to the alphabetical letters marked with diacritical points, and contains threnodies on the temple. The ninth is about King Ardeshir and A’b-un-nûr. The tenth is of Daniel, u. w. bl. a. p., and contains the interpretation of the dreams of Nebuchadnezzar and of his son; mysteries to happen in the world, and predictions about the resurrection and the day of judgment. The eleventh is of O’zair [Ezra], u. w. bl. a. p.; it contains the description of the people’s return from the land of Babel [Babylon] to the second temple and its building.

‘The Rabbani Jews differ from other sects in the explanation of the ordinances of the Torah, and they derive the details thereof from Moses, u. w. bl. a. p.

‘As to the Christians, their sects are also numerous, the three principal ones of them, however, are—the Melikites, the Jacobites, and the Nestorians. All agree that Allah, the Most High, is one in nature, i.e. in essence, but three in personality, i.e. in qualities. The meaning of person is “individual quality,” and they consider these persons to be the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. By the Father they mean the essence with the existence; by the Son, the essence with the knowledge; they also call him “the word,” and define him as “the union”; by the Holy Ghost they mean “the essence with the life.” Yahia Bin A’dy has philosophically, but contrary to their opinions, explained these persons by “the intellect, the intelligent, and the intelligible.” This they reject, and believe that the Messiah was born by Mary, slain, and crucified. Three hundred and seventeen of their elders assembled in the presence of the Emperor of Constantinople, and composed the articles of religion, which they surnamed “The [Confession of] Faith.” This, as well as the creed of the Christian religion, they took from the Injil [Evangel], which they possess, and which is the history of the Messiah, u. w. bl. a. p. It was collected by four of his companions, namely: Matâ, Lûqá, Mârqûs, and Yohanna. The word Injil means “glad tidings.” They have also a book known as “The Canons,” which is composed by their elders, and resorted to in the details of worship, in transactions and the like. They use the Psalms as prayers.

‘The Melikites stand alone in their assertion that a portion of the Deity has for our sake assumed humanity, become one with the body of the Messiah, and incarnate therein. They do not call “the knowledge” before its incarnation “the Son,” but “the Messiah,” although the Son became incarnate. They believe that “the word” commingled with the body, as wine mixes with water and milk. They state that the nature of the three persons is different; they believe in their Trinity, and are alluded to in the words of the Most High: “They are certainly infidels who say Allah is the third of the three.”^* They assert that the Messiah was wholly, and not partly, human, and that the killing and crucifixion befell humanity, but not Deity.

‘The Jacobites are distinguished by their maintaining the Deity of the Messiah, u. w. bl. a. p. They assert that “the word” was changed into flesh and blood, and became the Messiah; that he is God and manifest in the flesh. To them the Most High alludes in the words: “They are infidels who say, Verily, God is Christ, the son of Mary.”^† They believe that “the word” was united to a part, but not to the whole of the man; they believe that the Messiah has one nature, and one person, but that he partakes of two natures, whereby they perhaps mean that his temperament is composed of two temperaments.

‘The Nestorians are discerned by their dogma that the Deity shone upon humanity as the sun shines on crystal, and appeared in it as the appearance of the sun on a signet ring. Some of them assert that the coming down of the Deity into humanity is the descent of the grandeur and dignity, which were most complete and perfect in the humanity of the Messiah above anything else. They agree with the Melikites that the Messiah was slain and crucified on account of his manhood, and not on account of his Godhood; by the former his body, and by the latter his soul, is meant. O Allah Most High! protect us from the great blasphemies which oppressors and infidels utter. Praise be to Allah, who has bestowed on us Islâm, and has guided us by his prophet Muhammad, upon whom be the most excellent blessings and peace.’

It is natural that Muhammadan authors drew their notions of Christianity from the Eastern sects they came in contact with, as they knew nothing about the Western ones; and such was much more the case in earlier than in later times. Even then, however, all Christian sects professed to consider the Bible to be the chief source and standard of their religion, just as the Moslems regard the Qurân to be the basis of their faith. But for all that, how many Christian sects both did, and still do, anathematize each other, while the Muhammadans do much the same. The Bible has been variously explained, and so has the Qurân; and this has not ceased even in our own times after many centuries of controversy. All human things are mutable, and so are creeds. Traditions which have in course of time acquired much authority, must in great measure be held responsible for the changes gradually taking place in the tenets of various sects, and even for the rise of new ones. As Christian tradition has in various matters departed from the Bible,^* so has Muhammadan tradition departed from the Qurân; one of these last it will not be out of place to adduce here as an example. According to tradition, Moslems believe that their prophet worked miracles—some of which will be related in detail during the course of this work under the ‘Life of Muhammad’— whereas it appears from the Qurân that he claimed no such power. To show this, the following passages may be quoted:

‘Nothing hindered us from sending [thee] with miracles except that the former [nations] have charged them with imposture.’^*

‘They say, unless a sign be sent unto him from his Lord [we will not believe]. Answer: Signs are in the power of Allah alone, and I am [no more than] a public preacher.’^† ‘And they say: We will by no means believe on thee, until thou cause a spring of water to gush forth for us out of the earth; or to have a garden of palm trees, or of vines, and thou cause rivers to spring forth from the midst thereof in abundance, or thou cause the heavens to fall down upon us—as thou hast given out—in pieces; or thou bring down Allah and the angels to vouch [for thee]; or thou have a house of gold, or thou ascend by a ladder to heaven: neither will they believe thy ascending [thither alone] until thou cause a book to descend to us [bearing witness of thee] which we may read. Answer: My Lord be praised! am I other than a man, sent as an apostle?’^‡ ‘The infidels say: Unless some sign be sent down unto him from the Lord [we will not believe]. Answer: Verily Allah is able to send down a sign, but the greater part of them know it not.’^§ ‘That which ye desire to be hastened is not in my power: judgment [belongeth] only to Allah, He will determine the truth, and He is the best discerner.’^ǁ ‘They have sworn by Allah the most solemn oath, that if a sign came unto them they would certainly believe therein. Say: Verily signs are in the power of Allah alone, and He permitteth you not to understand that when they come they will not believe.’^*

Besides the discrepancies between the accounts of the Bible and the Qurân, there are numerous historical events of early times which are represented differently by occidental and by oriental authors. All ancient history is initially based on oral traditions, much more than on written documents, which have followed them later. In those written accounts Muhammadan writers, even whilst they sometimes differ from each other, may be said to run in a kind of parallel grooves amongst themselves, and to be utterly at variance with European authors, who on their part displayed in early times a lamentable ignorance of, and culpable indifference towards, Eastern history. Thus, for instance, the ancient Persians had a series of kings about whom the Greek historians knew next to nothing, and the names of those they did mention they distorted in such a way as to make them almost unrecognisable. With the names of cities they dealt even more arbitrarily, and seemed to change every name they met with, or adapt it to their own pronunciation. On the other hand, all the oriental accounts about Alexander the Great, whose name is changed by them to Eskander, must be set down as purely mythical. We find that Firdausi (who died A.D. 1030), and Nizami (who died A.D. 1180), as also several other Persian poets and historians, make Alexander the Great a son of the Persian King Darius, by a daughter of the Macedonian Philip, while occidental authors are entirely reticent on this point. Such discrepancies will, of course, appear in this work in a stronger light than in the present remarks; but they are worthy of interest, and the more so as steam and electricity are now causing the West and the East to merge into close contact, so that they ought to become better acquainted with each other historically, politically, and socially.

A history, then, composed by an oriental author, and written in the spirit of Muhammadanism, ought to be considered as a valuable contribution, tending to promote a better acquaintance with the Eastern Moslem world. No work of this kind is more popular or more highly esteemed than the ‘Rauzat-us-safa fi siret-ulambiâ va ulmulûk va ulkhulfâ,’ generally called ‘The Garden of Purity, containing the Histories of Prophets, Kings and Khalifs.’ The word ‘Rauzat’ means literally a garden, but usage has in all Muhammadan countries, as well as in India, assigned to it the signification of a mausoleum surrounded by a garden or park.^* The word ‘safa’ is a plural, meaning pure, holy, and by extension illustrious. Hence the more correct translation of the above title would be as follows: ‘Mausoleum of Illustrious Men, containing the Biographies of Prophets, Kings and Khalifs.’ The author is known by the name of Muhammad Bin Khâvendshâh Bin Mahmûd, but more familiarly and simply as Mirkhond. He died A.H. 903, A.D. 1498, and the patron by whose order he composed this work was A’li Shir, the Amir of Hirât.

The Rauzat-us-safa is so voluminous that only some portions of it have as yet been translated, although as early as A.D. 1662 historical accounts from it were given in a book called ‘Les états et principautés du monde,’ first in a French, afterwards in an Italian, and lastly in an English translation by Stevens in A.D. 1715. This rich mine of historical and of religious lore has, however, afterwards been gradually, though as yet only partially, explored in fourteen European works by authors of various nationalities, as will appear from the following list:

‘Historia priorum regum Persarum post firmatum in regno Islamismum. Ex Mohammade Mirchond. Persice et Latine cum notis geographicis et literariis. Vienna, 1780, 4to.’

‘Mémoires sur diverses antiquités de la Perse et sur les médailles des rois de la dynastie des Sassanides, suivis de l’histoire de cette dynastie. Traduction du Persan de Mirchond par Silvestre de Sacy. Paris, 1793, 4to.’

‘Mohammedi filii Chavendschahi vulgo Mirchondi historia Samanidarum, persice e codice bibliothecæ regiæ Hannoveranæ nunc primum edidit interpretatione latina, annotationibus historicis et indicibus illustravit. Fr. Wilken. Göttingæ, 1804, 4to.’

‘Notice sur l’histoire universelle de Mirchond intitulée le jardin de la pureté, suivie de l’histoire de la dynastie des Ismaëliens de Perse, extraite du même ouvrage en persan et en français, par M. A. Jourdain. Paris, 1812, 4to.’

‘Mirchondi historia Jaheridarum, historicis notis incognitorum Persiæ principum, persice et latine edidit. E. Mitscherlich, Göttingæ, 1814, 8vo. ed., da Berlini, 1819, 8vo.’

‘Mirchondi historia Ghuridarum, regum Persiæ Indiæque, atque Carachitarum imperatorum Tartariæ. E libris manuscriptis persice et latine edidit et annotavit Dr. E. Mitscherlich. Francofurti ad Mœnum, 1818, 8vo.’

‘History of the early kings of Persia from Kaimars, the first of the Peshdadian dynasty to the conquest of Iran by Alexander the Great. Translated from the original Persian of Mirkhond, entitled the ‘Rauzat-us-safa,’ with notes and illustrations by David Shea. London, 1832, 8vo.’

‘Mohammedi filii Chondschahi vulgo Mirchondi historia Ghasnavidarum Persice. E codicibus Berolinensibus aliisque nunc primum edidit, lectionis varietate instruxit, latine vertit, annotationibus historicis illustravit. Fredericus Wilken. Berolini, 1831, 1 vol., 4to.’

‘Geschichte der Sultane aus dem Geschlechte Bujeh, persisch und deutsch Von Friedr Wilken. Berlin, 1835, 4to.’

‘Erläuterung und Ergänzung eineger Stellen der von Mirchond verfassten Geschichte des Stammes Buwieh durch Franz von Erdmann. Kasan, 1836, 8vo.’

‘Mirkhondi historia Seldschukidarum persice e codicibus manuscriptis Parasino et Berolinensi nunc primum edidit, lectionis varietate instruxit, annotationibus philologicis et criticis illustravit Joannes Augustus Vullers, Phil. Doct. litt. orient. in academia Ludoviciana Gissiensi P.P.O. Societates Asiaticæ Parisiensis sodalis. Gissæ, 1837, 8vo.’

‘Mirkhond’s Geschichte der Seldschuken aus dem persischen zum erstenmal übersetzt mit historischen, geographischen und literarischen Anmerkungen erläutert Von Dr. Johann August Vullers, Professor der morganländischen Sprachen und Litteratur und der Universität Giessen. Mitglied der asiat. Ges. zu Paris. Mit einer Geschlechtstafel und einem Sachregister. Giessen, 1838, 8vo.’

‘Vie de Djenghiz-Khan par Mirkhond (text persan), à l’usage des élèves de l’école spéciale des langues orientales, par M. Defrémery. Paris, 1845, 8vo.’

‘The history of the Atabeks of Syria and Persia, by Muhammad Bin Khâvendshâh Bin Mahmûd, commonly called Mirkhond. Now first edited from the collation of sixteen MSS. by W. H. Morley, to which is added a series of facsimiles of the coins struck by the Atabeks, arranged and described by W. S. W. Vaux. London, 1850, 8vo.’

The present work will be an addition to the above list, under the title of ‘Prophets and Kings; or, Sacred and Profane History according to the Moslem Belief.’ The first part will extend from the creation of genii and men till the extinction of the Sassanian dynasty under Yazdijard. It will be a complete translation of the first volume of the ‘Rauzat-us-safa,’ omitting only the portion translated by David Shea, and mentioned in the list given above. The second part will contain the life of Muhammad, translated from the first portion of the second volume of the ‘Rauzat-us-safa,’ with an appendix on his wives, concubines, children, amanuenses, almsgatherers, servants, freed men and women, translated from the ‘Habib-us-siar’ of Khondemir, the son of the author of the ‘Rauzat-us-safa.’

The Persian copy used in the production of the ‘Prophets and Kings’ was lithographed in Bombay A.H. 1271/A.D. 1854, and has been faithfully rendered into English by the translator. The names Jebrail, Yusuf, I’sa, Mûsa, Habil, Qabil, and many others, have been retained, and their English equivalents, Gabriel, Joseph, Jesus, Moses, Abel, and Cain, have been added in brackets only when necessary. The detailed table of contents will enable the reader to find any person or subject he may require. In the footnotes references are given to the passages quoted from the Qurân in the text.

E. REHATSEK.

AUTHOR’S PREFACE.
IN THE NAME OF ALLAH THE MERCIFUL, THE CLEMENT!

THE ornament of the introduction to the chronicle containing the biographies of prophets of exalted station, and the decoration of the preface to the collection of the memorable deeds of powerful sovereigns, is gratitude to the Universal Benefactor, on the spread table of whose bounty the marvels of the visible creation are displayed; and the emanations of the Fountain of life are a rhetorical goblet¹ from the ocean of His favours, the eloquent utterances whereof cannot be adequately interpreted by the greatest sages of the world, the Eternal, without whose adoration and praise annals cannot be commenced, and without the mention of whose exalted attributes the chronicles of antiquity cannot be arranged.

The vicissitudes of royal dynasties are a convincing proof of the perpetuity of His sovereignty, and the changes of fortune to which kings are subject are evident signs of His omnipotence. He placed ‘one who will do evil therein’² by His abundant goodness and mercy on the seat of glory and throne of successorship [by creating man] according to the verse, ‘I am going to place a substitute on earth,’³ and flung the seraph of the highest heavens to manifest His glory from the throne of honour down into the abyss of misery [saying]: ‘Get thee therefore hence: for thou shalt be driven away with stones.’⁴

The Bountiful who has ennobled men—‘Verily we have favoured the sons of Adam’⁵ —has made them happy in the world—‘by possession, and by establishing you therein’⁶ —who has exalted the victorious standards of kings to the highest pinnacles of dominion, and has made the blades of those who combat for religion the reflectors of victory. The Predestinator who stands in no need of instruments or aids in the creation and perfection of existing things. The Fashioner who has depicted the effects of His bounty on all forms [saying]: ‘Verily we have created man of a most excellent fabric’⁷ —in perfect beauty as an evident miracle ‘he has formed you and made your forms beautiful.’⁸

The creator of men and genii:
All was, when He said: be.
His bounty and liberality ennobled man
With the nobility of intellect, virtue and existence.

Glory be to the Sage, who, when He had perfected His work by the creation of intelligent beings, adorned in His supreme wisdom the heavens with assemblies of saints and angels, and ornamented the centre of the circle of existence by calling into being human creatures, containing in themselves the germs of good and of evil. These were accounted to belong to the second class of rational beings, and were, according to the manifestations of their innate capacities and their original differences, divided into various races. But as not every member of the human species was, by his own efforts, able to fathom his exalted origin, to attain a knowledge of the Deity, to reach the object of his desires, and under the guidance of reason alone, which is beset with doubts, to walk in the paths of righteousness, and thus ultimately to participate in heavenly bliss, the Omnipotent Director—may His attributes be praised, and His gifts be appreciated—has raised up from their own kind exalted prophets and inspired messengers, endued with purity and wisdom, to guide those who have gone astray in the vale of aberration, and those who are thirsty into the paths of orthodoxy, and to the fountain of Divine grace.

Prophets succeeded each other during many ages until the sun of apostleship rose in Battha,⁹ and the great prophetic light began powerfully to radiate from Mekkah; namely, until his lordship, the prince of saints, the support of the poor, the medium of the mysteries of the invisible world, the conveyer of the tidings of absolute certainty, the firstfruit of the garden of existences, the index and model of created beings, the sovereign utterer of the announcement, ‘I have with Allah’¹⁰ appeared, who was honoured with the words, ‘May Allah forgive thee,’¹¹ He who is the altar of the lamp of prophecy and of Emamship, the confidant of the mansion of proximity, honour, and intimacy, the sun of the firmament (according to the saying), ‘I walked on earth, and beheld the east and the west thereof,’¹² the elected Mekkanican, the chosen Madinian, the Quraishian director, the Hashemite guide, the jewel of the family of Lowa, the son of Ghâleb, Muhammad the son of Abdullah, son of Abdulmutallab (may the blessing of Allah and peace be upon him and on his family), the herald who conveyed the words, ‘I was a prophet and a man between water and loam’¹³ to the denizens of heaven and earth, and who promulgated the invitation, ‘I am sent to the black and to the red,’¹⁴ to the terrestrial and to the celestial world; the chieftain, the light of whose august forehead was the origin of all creatures. ‘The first of what Allah created was light.’¹⁵ He whose propitious advent entailed the promulgation of His sublime laws, ‘the apostle of Allah and the seal of the prophets;’¹⁶ the prince whose sanguinary lance terrified the warriors of the [tribes] Rabi’h and Madhar, and the fear of the sharpness of whose fire-shedding scimitar conveyed the thirsty souls of the Beni Ghâleb to the fountain of certainty and to the mansion of the righteous; the prophet, the convincing miracles of whose power will for all time to come survive among the nations, and the evident signs of His acts will subsist for ever and ever. The exalted personage who rose during the night of the Ascension to the highest heavens, and overshadowed the denizens of the sacred regions with the wings of his kindness and favour; the royal cavalier who, when he departed from that locality, continued to instruct mankind. In the spaces he traversed, the dust of his Borâq’s¹⁷ hoofs is esteemed of equal value with the diadems adorning the heads of the nobles of the upper world. He is the sovereign, the dust of whose blessed sandals is deservedly the collyrium of the eyes of mortal men:

Distich:

When he was on earth he was the Qiblah of heavenly spirits, In heaven he is the refuge of mankind.

O Allah! Bless Muhammad, his family, progeny, companions and people, with blessings that will not terminate for ever, and will endure as long as time lasts! Constant, blessed and abundant salutations to Him and to them!

But after [this preliminary, the following statement is made]: The author of these pages, the most despicable servant of God, Muhammad the son of Khâvand Shâh, son of Mahmûd—may the Most High pardon his transgressions —speaks as follows: In the midst of the vernal season of youth, which is the best and most pleasant epoch of life, his weak mind and imbecile talents were devoted to the study of historical works, comprising information about the affairs of the inhabitants of the world, and the fortunes of various nations, and whenever other avocations that engaged his attention admitted, he applied himself with the greatest eagerness to the study of ancient chronicles and traditions; he also occasionally delivered lectures to noble and learned personages, which were greatly applauded. Meanwhile a number of chosen spirits,¹⁸ adorned with the decorations of virtue and sincerity, requested, and even enjoined, him from time to time to compose a work embracing the great achievements of the apostle [Muhammad], the prophets, kings, and khalifahs, for the perusal of sovereigns and the pastime of grandees. But despite of his readiness to comply with the wishes of his incomparable friends, he was hindered by his poverty, obscurity, the want of patrons, and by other obstacles, so that there was no possibility of beginning the work. Anyone engaged in literary occupations must enjoy tranquillity of body and mind, comfortable circumstances, and must not be troubled by any cares. Also, in ancient times authors carried on their labours by the support they received from high personages.

In short, whilst I was thus waiting for an opportunity to find a patron, my time was lost, and I was very unhappy, till at last the breeze of divine favour wafted me into happiness and prosperity, which happened as follows: When the throne of justice, the office of government, and the exalted dignity of the highest rank became adorned by the excellent qualities of—the upholder of the banners of righteousness, the abolisher of the signs of darkness and aberration,¹⁹ the intimate of the Royal Majesty, the Councillor of State, the refuge of created beings, the experienced, the intelligent, the possessor of all theoretical and practical perfections, the recipient of eternal felicities, the discoverer of the mysteries of antiquity, the adept in all the enigmas of philosophy, the Sûfi-minded and sincere-hearted, the dignified, the prudent, the administrator of the monarchy— AMIR A’LI SHIR (may God vouchsafe to the Musulmâns the perpetuity of His prosperity, and may God bring all his aspirations and undertakings to a happy issue), the rose-garden of scholars was weeded of the thorns of despondency and began to flourish, the groves of the hopes of men of science were refreshed by abundant showers from the clouds of his favours, and the tree of the prosperity of learned men became fruit-bearing from the breeze of the gardens of his bounty.

I, the insignificant servant, was waiting for the radiation of the sun of the benefits of prosperity during many hopeless nights, and was counting the stars till the rise of dawn, but was, by my ill luck and by the machinations of enemies, deprived of the felicity of obtaining admission to the private society, and of gaining the ear of him who is the friend of scholars.²⁰ In my great uneasiness, I requested the morning and the evening breeze, which is the messenger of the poor and the unhappy, to convey the following lines to that ocean of beneficence and of liberality:

Verses:

Thy largesses are more abundant Than the waters of the ocean. The waves of thy liberality so inundated the world That only thy servant remains untouched by them.

I was moreover aware that the non-reception of favours was attributable rather to the receiver than to the granter, because the liberality of the latter is equally manifest to all.

At last, however, on a happy day, I was by favourable circumstances, I should say by a special interposition of Providence, ad??tted to the propitious threshold. When I was made happy by being allowed to kiss the carpet, I beheld, indeed, an exalted spirit, and an angel in the form of a man, distinguished by his noble attributes and accomplishments above the most learned persons of our times; whose exalted intellect penetrated the most abstruse matters, whose spotless bosom was the receptacle of the mysteries of the invisible world, whose pearl-shedding tongue was the interpreter of divine tidings, and whose poetical effusions delighted all intelligent readers!

Having explained my case, enjoyed the advantage of the interview, and obtained leave to depart, I returned to my humble abode, and considered in what manner I might become enrolled in the service of that exalted personage, and by what trifling oblation I could make myself worthy of participating in the liberality of that sovereign. As he is greatly interested in the affairs of illustrious and holy men, and has in his knowledge of history, of biography, and in his researches concerning ancient nations, surpassed all past and present chroniclers, I concluded that I ought to write a collection of the histories of Prophets, Inspired Messengers, Khalifahs, and Sultâns, comprising also the affairs of high and low personages of various countries, which could neither be superseded by the works of any other authors, nor fall into oblivion during the vicissitude of time:

Verses:

Buildings may be seen, Ruined by sun and rain. Erect history’s strong foundation To escape from wind, rain, and desolation.

My intention having been approved of, I was ordered to compose a history, free from metaphorical exaggerations, plagiarisms, prolixities and obscurities, divided into a preface, seven parts, and an appendix, in such a manner that each part may contain three books, and could be read separately. In compliance with the exalted command, I placed my finger of acquiescence on the vision of obedience, and girded my loins to begin the work, at the same time proferring my request to be provided with historical books, and with a lodging where I might comfortably pursue my labours, etc. All my wishes met with the approbation of him who is aided by divine favour, namely, of the confidant of the Royal Majesty, and I was installed in his private mansion on the banks of the river Jil, in the vicinity of the high school built by his own generosity, which, with all the edifices constructed by that exalted personage, will (if it pleaseth Allah the Most High) be described in the proper place.

Verses:

No petitioner, either in anger or in play, Perceived a negation in his kind eye. Not to disappoint the modest asker, He always was the cheerful granter.

Were it not for his strenuous efforts, and the protection he grants to scholars, the traces of theoretical and of narrative sciences would disappear from the minds of persons addicted either to researches or to traditional knowledge, nor would a single individual remain in the realm of Khorâsân who is able to discern a surface from a line, or what is licit from what is illicit; and were it not for the bountiful consideration bestowed by him on the poor and distressed, persons like myself might wait for a long time to receive from covetous and envious men even as inconsiderable an amount of aid as the quantity of the collyrium which people apply to their eyes. As, however, a separate volume would be required to enumerate all his kind acts and excellent qualities, I sincerely pray that the Most High (whose name be glorified) may grant him a long life, may prosper him in all his undertakings, and may guard him from all the calamities and vicissitudes of fortune for the sake of His prophet, the honour of the family and progeny.

I begin the preface and the work by invoking the grace of the Granter of every good thing and the Source of all liberality; and, in compliance with the sanction of the monarch of the realms of knowledge, who is a lamp illuminating the world He has created, I call this book ‘The Mausoleum of Illustrious Personages, containing the lives of Prophets, Kings, and Khalifahs,’ and divide it into a preface, seven parts and an appendix.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Preface.—Concerning the advantages of the science of history, the necessity of rulers to study it, and the requirements of those who wish to compose it.

First Part.—Description of the first creatures, record of the genii, explanation of the narratives of the prophets and their numbers (peace be upon them), together with the adventures of the Persian Kings and of the ancient philosophers.

Second Part.—Explanation of the wars of the prince of inspired messengers [Muhammad] and of the orthodox Khalifahs, blessings be upon him and upon them all.

Third Part.—Explanation of the adventures and events of the twelve Emâms, of the Ommiade [Beni O’mayya] and of the Abbaside [Beni A’bbâs] Khalifahs.

Fourth Part.—Exposition of the history of the Kings contemporaneous with the Abbasides.

Fifth Part.—Description of the origin and rise of the conqueror Changiz Khân, and the rule of his descendants over Erân and Turân.

Sixth Part.—Description of the progress and reign of the Sâheb Qerân,²¹ the conqueror of the world, and the axis of the political and religious government, the Amir Taimur Gurkân (may Allah illuminate his proof); of his conquest of the world, and record of the rule of most of his glorious progeny.

Seventh Part.—Exposition of the government of the divinely-aided, happy and victorious King, the paragon of all the qualities of four and seven,²² the sovereign of the world and of the age, the honour of the monarchy and of the Khalifate, Abulghâzi Sultân Husain Bahâdur, may the standard of the champions of his sublime and victorious realm never be lowered.

Appendix.—Various narratives and descriptions concerning the created things of the world, and an epitome of the wonders and monuments of the omnipotence of the inscrutable Worker and Creator.²³

PREFACE.

The intelligent and experienced reader is aware that the science of history has many uses, the enumeration whereof would give occasion to great prolixity. But, according to the proverb, ‘Though all cannot be completed, all is not omitted,’ I cannot avoid recording some of these uses in order to enhance the pleasure and to augment the diligence of those who wish to devote themselves to the study of this science. Accordingly the musk-pen here inserts with slight alterations those uses, copied from trustworthy authorities; and this declaration is made that, if objections be raised, the intelligent may know who was the copyist.

First Use.—Men obtain all their knowledge either by means of their intellect or of their senses; the knowledge gained by the latter is acquired either by the eye or by the ear, and every intelligent person is aware that the affairs of the world can, by intellect alone, not be ascertained, as also that no individual ever lived long enough to witness all the events of the world with his own eyes, and to acquire certainty on their goodness or badness. Accordingly the way to become acquainted with the affairs of the world and its inhabitants, together with their customs and manners, depends upon the perusal of works based on things heard; nor does in this respect any other science resemble that of history.

Second Use.—History is a science promoting cheerfulness and exhilaration, wiping off the rust of ennui and fatigue from the speculum of the mind. Everybody knows that sight and hearing are nobler senses than the others: the former is delighted by contemplating beautiful pictures, and the latter by enjoying the recital of narratives; because curiosity is implanted in human nature, and in proverbs it is said that ‘the eye is not satisfied with seeing, nor the ear filled with hearing,²⁴ nor the earth with rain.’

Third Use.—History, although having many advantages, can be easily studied and remembered; and anyone spending his time agreeably in the pursuit thereof may likewise draw useful lessons therefrom for his own guidance and the furtherance of his affairs.

Fourth Use.—Anyone able to criticise historical statements will meet with different expressions of opinion, will select those in conformity with authentic traditions, and reject those contrary to them as false; in which manner he will acquire the faculty of discriminating between truth and falsehood.

Fifth Use.—The sages have said that experience in affairs is one of the advantages to men, because by it the transactions of life are perfected. They have also said that there are various degrees of intellect, one of which they have named ‘the intellect acquired by experience,’ and this they have divided into three kinds. The first is the ability to predict the good and evil consequences of an undertaking; the second is the faculty of distinguishing from the act itself whether it will harm or profit the agent; the third is an acquaintance with the events of former times, and the power of ascertaining from them the causes of prosperity and distress, of happiness and calamity. Of all these three degrees of experience, that is the most instructive which a man has acquired by himself participating in an event. As the history of antiquity is based on the maxim that ‘a thing is known by study, and averted by explanation,’ it is plain that it belongs to the first kind; because if a cheerful and practical narrative of a people is given, together with the various advantages which had accrued to the subjects who acted in the affairs recounted, an intelligent reader will draw his conclusions, and will, according to the verse, ‘Those are they whom Allah directs,’²⁵ be guided by the experience thus acquired, and will bring his own business to a happy issue. On the other hand, when the history of an imbecile and weak-minded nation—which is careless and ignorant, and whose misfortunes may be a warning to others—is perused, the reader will, according to the verse, ‘O ye who are endowed with understanding,’²⁶ be put on his guard, and will, according to the verse, ‘And will be a bar between them and between that which they covet,’²⁷ remain unscathed.

Sixth Use.—The student of history peruses in the works he reads the opinions of wise men, which are more sound than those of our [ordinary] contemporaries; because the ancients looked in their affairs mostly to their own profit, whereas in the present age everybody minds the business of other people more than his own, and the former principle is greatly superior to the latter. Accordingly, when a man consults history, he has the experience of many intelligent persons at his disposal, and may thus prevent calamities or remove them, or console himself, using the light kindled by others to illuminate his own affairs, and to bring them to a prosperous end. The words, ‘Who is guided by the advice of others is aided,’ and the suggestion of Solmân the Persian—u. w. bl.—to dig the foss, which met with the approbation of his lordship the refuge of prophecy²⁸ — blessing, etc.—are likewise corroborations of the statement just made.

Seventh Use.—The intellect is strengthened by the study of history, virtue is promoted, and correct notions are produced. Therefore Barzachumir,²⁹ whose blessed nature was a paragon of wisdom, has said: ‘A knowledge of history aids man to form a proper opinion, because an acquaintance with ancient events is like an impartial witness giving a true account of all things.’

Eighth Use.—The minds of exalted personages are set at rest by the study of history when untoward calamities befall them, because in such cases all hope of success is not cut off, since in days gone by sometimes the greatest misfortunes were, by the grace of the Omnipotent, removed in the easiest manner; for time gives birth to a thousand varied events, not one of which was [previously] reflected in the speculum of our mind.

Ninth Use.—He who is acquainted with the events and histories of the world attains a certain degree of patience and acquiescence in the Divine will, which is a quality of illustrious and pious men. For everyone who studies the affairs of this world must be aware how all the inspired messengers and prophets, u. w. bl., who are now ranking with angels, bore everything with patience, and how they behaved; accordingly he will also, when any great calamity befalls him, take hold of the cable of resignation, and will not fail to imitate them; not is there any doubt that whoever possesses these two laudable qualities will be happy in both worlds, and will never feel the misery of the infernal regions.

Tenth Use.—This advantage, which in reality comprises several, but is reckoned by historians as one, is as follows: Just and religious sovereigns, as well as grandees and the chiefs of the people, become, by the vicissitudes and catastrophes recorded in history, more impressed with [a consciousness of] the power of the King of Kings] (praised be His government!), and are warned by the changes of past times that neither fortune nor misfortune is of long duration, and that they ought not to be puffed up by the smiles of the former, nor distressed by the frowns of the latter. By perusing the accounts of the happiness of the just and virtuous, and of the unhappiness of base and wicked individuals, we are admonished; the advantages of beneficence, and the evil consequences of maleficence, in matters of government become evident to men in power, who, although they may at the beginning of their governments have been tyrannical and oppressive, mostly renounce these evil ways of the erring and of the condemned, are saved from the abyss of the wicked, and walk in the path of the righteous, and finally attain the enjoyments in store, and the exalted stations prepared, for good men in eternal bliss; for ‘Such is the abode in the next world for those who covet not greatness on earth, nor wickedness; and the reward is for the pious.’³⁰

WHY GOVERNORS STAND IN GREATER NEED OF A KNOWLEDGE
OF HISTORY THAN OTHER PERSONS.

For several reasons no other persons ought to be more in need of a knowledge of history than rulers:

Firstly: Because the affairs of the whole world depend on their option and consideration, as well as the good and evil acts committed; the former of which it is their duty to encourage, and the latter to prevent. Therefore it is incumbent upon them to be acquainted with political events, stratagems of war, and the counsels of wise men, all of which matters may be learnt from history.

Secondly: Because when they study this science with attention, and gain a knowledge of the revenues and current affairs of ancient kings and governors, they strive to act justly, to govern their subjects mildly, and to do everything conducive to the permanency of their kingdom; they abstain from everything that might entail misery, trouble, or bring on a diminution of their power. When monarchs become impressed with the happy consequences of magnanimity, as portrayed in the characters of some former sovereigns, and contemplate the effects, intense pleasure takes hold of their minds, and they become desirous of surpassing the good reputations of their predecessors.

Thirdly: As Governors and Amirs are constantly absorbed in the political affairs of their governments, and their mental faculties are wearied by being always thus employed, they are greatly refreshed and cheered up by listening to historical narratives, because there is no science more apt to exhilarate the mind than history. The objections of ignorant persons—that the majority of chronicles are mere fictions and fables of the ancients, commingling truth with falsehood and right with wrong, to discern the one from the other being difficult, and that, therefore, it is useless to study them—are obviated by considering that the Emâms of former, and the great men of latter, times have based this science on righteousness, and it is impossible that the most virtuous persons, and the greatest U’lamâ, should have taken fiction and untruthfulness for their motto, and should have been engaged in palming them off as truth; therefore everything handed down to posterity by them is free from defects and imperfections. If, on the other hand, liars, and inventors of stories, obeying the impulses of their wicked propensities, impute blamable acts to the great men of antiquity, and consign their insinuations to writing, their productions are by learned critics soon branded with the stigma of infamy and exposed to the scorn of the world. Nevertheless, supposing some chronicles to be fictitious (which Allah forbid), they may be perused to some advantage; such, for instance, as the ‘Stories of Kalila and Dimna,’ with other fictions, not one of which is founded on reality, but which may be read with very great advantage and profit: Allah, however, is most wise!

QUALITIES NECESSARY TO AN HISTORIOGRAPHER.

It is clear to all intelligent persons that the business of an author is a serious and dangerous one, but especially the collecting and arranging of historical materials; because books of this kind are brought to the notice of sovereigns endowed with great power, of Amirs who are very discerning, of great personages, of nobles, of U’lamâ, and of scholars in all countries, and even of persons of low station scarcely able to distinguish white from black, but much pleased to listen to [recitals from] books of this kind, so that according to the proverb, ‘Whoever composes anything desires to become a target,’ the unhappy author becomes even in small defects the mark for the arrows of reprobation, shot at him by everybody. If, therefore, some of the conditions necessary for an historiographer are here submitted to the reader, he will perhaps withdraw the tongue of blame into his palate, and lend a willing ear to the recital of the historian.

The first quality is that an historian should be unbiassed in his religion, and of an orthodox sect, because heretics, such as the Kharejites and the Shia’hs,³¹ impute wicked acts to the companions of the prophet, and to their immediate successors, and have deceived people by inserting improper and unproved statements into their works, so that anyone, who is not aware of their tricks, believes their traditions to have been taken from the ‘Mishkât Nabavvat’ and from the ‘Misbâh Resâlat,’³² and is thus led into error.

The second quality is that an historian should always state both sides of his subject. Thus, for instance, when he mentions the virtues, good acts and justice along with the benefactions of persons of low and high degree, he must likewise mention their defects and bad qualities; he is, however, at liberty either to give a detailed statement of these last, or to hint at them enigmatically and covertly according to the proverb that ‘A hint is sufficient to a wise man.’

Third quality.—In his blame and praise he must abstain from exaggeration, and except for the sake of gaining some advantage, or averting some calamity, he must not swerve from the maxim that ‘The middle road is the best,’ because his object is merely to give a correct account of events, and if he aims to do that only, he will succeed.

Fourth quality.—An historian ought to write as if under the guidance of Providence. It is his duty to abstain from dissimulation, and also from vehemence, and to endeavour to write in a fluent style adorned with handsome and easily intelligible figures of speech, void of unusual or antiquated expressions, so as to make his work acceptable and pleasing to all intelligent persons of high and of low degree; and this rule applies not only to historical, but to all other compositions.

The fifth quality—which does not refer to the author of this work—is, that an historiographer must be noted for his honesty and piety, because, as the majority of historical reports concerning the affairs of kingdoms are not based on authorities which claim the full confidence of the readers, they are biassed by the character of the author, who, if he be of the right stamp, will not jeopardize his eternal salvation for the advantages of this world. Accordingly his works will be perused with delight, and will be handed down to the latest posterity.

In confirmation of the assertion just made, it may be remarked that the persons endowed with the above qualities have composed historical works in the Arabic and in the Persian languages, and although many centuries have elapsed since they wrote, their works have not fallen into oblivion.

The following are some of the names of Arab historians: Emâm Muhammad Bin Esahâq, who was the first author of the religion of Muhammad, who wrote on the wars [of the prophet] and on history.³³ After him came Emâm Wuhub Bin Muniah, and Emâm Vaqidi, and Assmâi, and Muhammad Jarir-ut-Tabari, and Abu Abdullah Musallam, who wrote the ‘Jâmi’-ul-ma’araf,’ and Muhammad Bin Ali Bin Aa’thum Al-Kufi, author of the ‘Fatûh,’ and Abdullah Bin Almoqana and Hakim Abu Ali Maskinah, and Fahr-ud-din Muhammad Bin Abu Dâud, and Suleimân Albenagiti, and Abulfaraj Bin Jûzi, author of the ‘Moutazim,’ and O’mad-ud-din Bin Kathir Ushshâmi, and Muqadasi, and Tha’alébi, and Abu Hanifah Dinvari, and Muhammad Bin Abdullah Al-Masu’di, and Emâm Kaweel Abdullah Bin Asad Aliamani Aliafa’i, and Abunassar Alotbi, the author of the ‘Yamani.’ Most of these authors likewise wrote commentaries and traditions, and the authority of their works is high beyond measure.

The names of some Persian authors are as follows: The first is the king of eloquence, Abul-Qâsim Hosan Bin Muhammad Bin A’li Al-Firdausi At-Tûsi; then comes Abul Hasan Ali Bin Shams-ul Islâm al Baihaqy, and Abul Hasan Bin Muhammad Bin Suleiman, author of the ‘Târikh-i Khosrû’; and Khôjah Abulfazl Baihaqi, compiler of the ‘Tarikh-i Muhammad Bin Sabaktagin,’ in three volumes; and Abbas Bin Mossab Ahmad Bin Siâr, and Abu Esahâq Muhammad Bin Ahmad Bin Yonas Al-Buzzâz, and Muhammad Bin O’qail Alfaqih Al-Balkhi, and Abul Kâsim Ali Bin Mahmûd Alka’bi, to whom the Tarikh (history) of Hirat, of Balkh, and of Nishapur is ascribed; and Abul Hasan Muhammad Bin Abd-ul-Ghâfer Al-Farsi, author of the ‘Syâq-ut-Tarikh’; and Sadr-ud-din Muhammad Bin Hasan Al-Nizami, author of the ‘Târikh Almâther’; and Abu Abdullah Minhaj Bin Modûd Aljorjani, author of the ‘Tabaqat Nassiri’; and Akbar-ud-din E’râqi, and Abul Qâsim Muhammad Bin Ali Alkâshi, author of the ‘Zubdat-ut-Tovârikh’; and Khôjah Abulfazl Abdullah Abu Nasser, and Ahmad Bin Ali Almunkâl, author of the ‘Mahzan-ul-ballâghat’ and of the ‘Fazail-ulmulûk’; and A’la-ud-din Atâ-ulmalik Ajawini, brother of the author of the ‘Shahid’; and Khôjah Shams-ud-din, author of a ‘Divân’ and of the ‘Târikh Jehan Kushai’; and Hamdullah Mastufi Qazvini, author of the ‘Târikh-i Guzideh’ and of the ‘Nazhat-ul-Qulûb’; and Qâzi Nasser-ud-din Beidhavi, author of the ‘Nizam-ut-tovârikh’; and Khôjah Rashid Tabib, author of the ‘Jâmi’; and Hafez Abru, upon all of whom be the mercy and benediction of Allah, as well as upon other historians who flourished at sundry times, and who have been used as sources, authorities and references [in this work].

Although this preface has been protracted to some length, all intelligent persons will admit that it was expedient; and hereby the beginning of the work, divided into seven parts (which is, by the grace and favour of the Almighty, and the aid of the humble-minded and pious Amir—who protects the oppressed, discomfits the oppressors, whose kindness is the balm for the wounds of poor men, and whose wrath is the special antidote against the poison of men who bite like vipers, and are evil wishers —pleasing to those of high and of low station) and selected from trustworthy authorities, is made.

PART I.

EXPLANATION ABOUT THE FIRST CREATED BEINGS.—RECORD OF THE GENII. — NARRATIVES OF THE PROPHETS: TO WHOM GREETINGS AND SALUTATION.—HISTORY OF THE KINGS OF PERSIA, AND OF THE ANCIENT PHILOSOPHERS.

GENII WERE THE FIRST CREATED BEINGS.

SEVERAL authors of reputation mention that Jâbur, the auxiliary³⁴ —may Allah reward him—who was an individual distinguished among the inhabitants of Madinah by his virtues and learning, had, before the origin of the religion of Islâm, associated with Jewish priests, Christian doctors and the like, and had made inquiries from them about past events, but that after having heard the various accounts of the Gentiles, his mind was not satisfied with any of them. When the sun of Muhammad’s prophetship rose on the horizon of the country of Yathrab,³⁵ and Jâbur had become an intimate friend of the seal of prophets— upon whom be the most perfect of benedictions—he was always kindling the lights of knowledge at the flambeau of prophecy, and therefore attained a high degree of information. It is related that he said one day, ‘Prophet of Allah! which was the thing first invested with the robe of existence by the Almighty?’ His lordship replied: ‘The light of thy prophet, O Jâbur.’ It is, however, known that on this point also many Muhammadans differ; and the reason of the discrepancy is, because many contradictory traditions have come down to us on this subject, as the prophet— upon whom be the benediction of Allah and peace—has said: ‘The first [thing] which Allah created was my light; and the first which Allah created was the pen, and the first which Allah created was the intellect; and He said to it “Approach,” and it approached. He said to it “Retreat,” and it retreated. He said: My honour and glory! By thee I grant, and by thee I forbid. By thee I establish [now] and by thee I appoint [what is to be].’ The author of the ‘Noâdir-ulma’ani’ has added the following two traditions to the preceding: ‘The prophet of Allah—u. w. bl., etc.—has said: The first which Allah created was the table,³⁶ and he said also that the first which Allah created was the spirit.’ The U’lama have expounded these traditions, but the elucidation is the one adduced by the chief of the assembly of the verifiers, and the leader of those of the present age, the Emâm Abdullah Bin Ali Bin Asad Aliamani Aliafai, in his book entitled ‘Noâdir-ulma’ani,’ namely, that according to these accredited traditions the Lord of prophecy—u. w. bl., etc.—means by these metaphors one essence; because that essence is manifest by itself, but not the manifester; and the abundance of perfections has been imparted to the holy prophetic nature (benediction, etc.) by the inscrutable Creator through this essence, which the prophet called light and ascribed to himself; and metaphorically considering it as the limner of knowledge passing over the preserved table, or over the surfaces of pictures, it was interpreted as the pen; being, therefore, able to perceive and to understand its own nature, and the nature of everything else, it was called the intellect; but as the place of the pictures is evident and established, it was called the table; and since it is living by nature, and is the vivifier of other faculties, it was called the spirit. This definition is one of the most glorious certainties, since the number of names does not imply contradiction in the object named. The purpose of these preliminary remarks is, to state that the Lord of glory illuminated the light of Muhammad, which is also called the white essence, with the splendour of beauty; that essence became divided into two parts, one of which was extremely pure and luminous, whereas the other appeared to the vision of the intellect to be inferior to the first. The first was called light, and the second fire. Of the first, noble and superior individuals, the heavenly bodies and constellations, the souls of the prophets, of saints, and those of the right hand,³⁷ were created. From what has just been said, it appears that every thing, except Allah, was created by means of the light of his Lordship the seal of the prophets, who has thus arrived from the corner of non-existence, in the plain of being and evidence, in conformity with the words, ‘Hadst thou [i.e. Muhammad] not been, the heavens would not have been created,’³⁸ which confirm the above assertions; consequently his Holiness and Lordship is the noblest and the most excellent of beings. On the subject of the beings first created, there are also other opinions, but the author is loath to cite them, lest he should unnecessarily prolong this dissertation.

JÂN BIN JÂN AND THE GENII WHO ARE ACCORDING TO THE LAW CALLED JINNS, AND THE DOMINION OF EBLIS— MAY ALLAH CURSE HIM.

Allah the Most High has said: ‘And the genii, we have created them formerly of the fire of the Simûm.’³⁹ It is related by Ibn Abbâs, u. w. bl., that the name of the father of the genii is Asûm, and that his surname is Jân. In the book of Adam,⁴⁰ it is recorded that Jân was called Târnûsh; when his children and descendants had multiplied on the face of the earth, Allah—whose name be glorified—gave them a law, and commanded all of them to obey Him. Târnûsh and his children, having received the commandments of religion, lived in comfort, till one cycle of recompense had elapsed; after that they began to sin, to disobey, to be obstinate and haughty. A cycle of recompense, which was considered by the sages of former times to consist of thirty-six thousand years, and by some of twenty-five thousand and two hundred, is held by Mahi-ud-din Maghrabi, whose opinions are honoured in latter ages as decrees, to amount to twenty-four thousand years. After the Lord of glory had condemned them, he subjected all of them to the chastisements of perdition, except the weak ones of that nation who had been constant in prayer; these he pardoned, appointed one of them of the name of Haliaish to be their governor, and granted them a new law. When another cycle had elapsed, they became disobedient, because their nature was intent upon aggrandisement; therefore the Eternal sent forth His command for their annihilation. The remainder of that tribe, who had found grace from the wrath of Allah on account of their constancy in prayer, obtained an individual named Maliqa to be their governor. The third cycle also came to an end, they again transgressed from the straight path, and were afflicted by the anger of the powerful avenger; but the pious, who were only few in number, were spared, and became in course of time a great nation. Hamûs, who was adorned with the ornaments of virtue, science, probity, and rectitude, became their governor, and reigned over them during his whole life, with justice according to the law, until he was translated to the propinquity of the mercy of the Lord of both worlds.

The wicked sons of Jân blasphemed and sinned; the Most High sent prophets to admonish them, and to advise them, but all in vain. Therefore, at the end of the fourth cycle, Divine Wisdom renewed the judgment, and appointed a tribe of angels to make war upon them. The angels, having descended from heaven, attacked the sons of Jân, and killed the majority of them. Those who escaped from the sword dispersed among islands and ruins; some of them who had not attained the age of maturity were made prisoners by the angels. The name of one of these prisoners was Eblis, who went up to heaven with the angels, and was educated among them; by degrees he improved so much that he was honoured by being made a teacher of angels. The author of the ‘Kulmât-ullutayif’ has related that the assembly to whom he preached was attached to the glorious throne, that he ascended a pulpit of rubies, and a banner of light floated over his head, and so many angels were present in his company that their number could not be ascertained by anyone except by Him who knows all secrets. Many years having elapsed since he had become a worshipper, and the sons of Jân having in course of time increased, and come forth from the isles and ruins into inhabited places, they subjected the world to themselves so that it fell away from obedience to, and the knowledge of God. Eblis aspired to become their director and guide, signified to them his wish, and was accepted. He came down to earth from heaven with a crowd of angels, and a small company of the obedient sons of Jân hastened to [enrol themselves in] his service. Azazil⁴¹ sent one of the pious, Sahlûb Bin Mullâtub by name, to the great men of that people, as a prophet, to call them to follow the religion. The messenger acted according to the commands he had received, but an excess of temerity and rebellion induced that nation to cause him to taste the beverage of martyrdom. Azazil, however, was not aware of this event, and after a protracted absence of the prophet, he sent another, who underwent the same fate; then Azazil sent them a monitor, whom these impure ones likewise slew. At last he despatched Yusuf Bin Yusuf, who met his own kindred, and they strove to take his life also, but, by means of subtleties and stratagems, he rescued himself from the jaws of death, returned, and narrated his adventures. Azazil then obtained leave from the Mansion of Unity, sped with an army of angels to combat the disobedient, and having slain the majority, he dispersed the remnant of them over the world. Having attained sovereign authority in all matters of command and dominion, he raised the standard of royalty, with the motto of ‘I, and no one besides me,’ asserting that, in case the Almighty should delegate the supreme authority to another individual, he would offer resistance, because he considered himself to be the sole possessor of all theoretical and practical perfections, and saw no one more worthy than himself to occupy that position. In short, the vapour of self-complacency and conceit had found entrance in the closet of his brain, and he dwelt alternately in heaven and on earth.

Verses:

From pride in the army of the King, He now roamed over the earth and now over the sky. He was not aware of his works and acts, Nor that his method was faulty.

Very often he adduced, in select assemblies, arguments favouring his own excellency by means of deceitful illusions and diabolical stratagems, and allowed free play to his contumacious spirit in the company of angels. Meanwhile, some of the latter were one day going to have a look at the Preserved Table. On their return Eblis perceived marks of grief on their forehead, and asked them for the cause. They replied, ‘This day we have obtained the information from the Table that one of the Cherubim⁴² of the mansion of eternity will soon be afflicted with ejection and everlasting damnation. Every one of us is afraid for his own sake, and we request thee to pray that the guardian angels may allow none of us to fall into this awful misfortune; we are very much terrified and dismayed.’ Eblis said, ‘Let not this event disturb you, for that judgment refers neither to me nor to you. I have years ago been aware of it, and have not communicated it to anyone.’ The pride and arrogance of Eblis did not allow him to weigh the words of the angels, he had no inclination for humiliation and submission; consequently he was condemned to everlasting perdition, and sempiternal culpability; may Allah preserve us therefrom.

At that time the blessed exclamation ‘I am going to place a substitute on earth’⁴³ reached the hearing of the inhabitants of the universe, and the echo of the succession of Adam overspread the surface of the world. On hearing the news, depraved ejaculations protruded their heads from the entrails of the unhallowed Satan, and he said, ‘How can a man created of loam claim superiority, since clay is thick and dark, whereas fire is subtle and luminous; light is always more excellent than darkness.’ The angels, having guessed the event to come either from the deeds of the son of Jân, or by some other means, said [to God], ‘Wilt Thou place there one who will do evil therein and shed blood, but we celebrate Thy praise and sanctify Thee.’⁴⁴ But the Lord, who is aware of what is to take place, knew by His prescience that the angels were not conscious that Adam would become the repository of supreme mysteries, and the manifester of the perfections and attributes of Allah; therefore He replied, ‘Verily I know that which ye know not.’⁴⁵ By this answer the angels were admonished for their boldness, and having come forth to deprecate, they walked in the path of imploring pardon; but Eblis persevered in his opposition as before.

Let it not remain hidden from the discerning reader that everything narrated above about Jân and the genii has been taken from the translation of the books of Adam— u. w. b. bl., etc.—written by the distinguished sage Abu Ali Ja’fer Bin Yaqûb-ul-isfahani; and He [i.e. God] knows best the true state of the case.

SUMMARY OF THE HISTORY OF ADAM THE PURE, UPON WHOM BE BENEDICTION AND PEACE FROM THE PERFECT KING.

When the Almighty benefactor had decided to create Adam, He commanded Jebrâil [Gabriel] the faithful to bring a handful of loam of various colours and endowed with different qualities from the surface of the earth. Jebrâil started on the wings of haste from his place, traversed the contignations of the skies and elemental orbs, and having arrived on the surface of the earth, he stretched forth his hand to execute the command he had received. This fearful attempt moved the vapours imprisoned for ages in the bowels of the earth, and caused a terrible earthquake, whereon the soil interrogated Jebrâil, who replied: ‘The Lord of glory intends to create a man from thee; to dignify his head with the diadem of successorship, and to adorn his stature with the robe of munificence.’ The earth rejoined: ‘I take refuge with Allah from thee; I adjure thee by the Lord to desist from this purpose, lest He create of me an individual who would, like the sons of Jân, attempt stratagems of disobedience, and would consequently be punished and condemned. I have not the power to resist the wrath of God and the punishment of the Most High King.’ Jebrâil heard the entreaties of the earth, and, pitying its helplessness, returned the same way by which he had descended, and laid his information before the vestibule of [the Lord of] glory. By the permission of the Creator of men, Michael also descended upon earth, and the same conversation having taken place between him and the earth as with Jebrâil, he likewise returned. Then the Almighty sent A’zrayil on the same errand, the earth again implored God and began to lament and to cry. A’zrayil said: ‘It is more incumbent upon me to obey the Omnipotent Nourisher than to take pity on thee.’ Accordingly, he collected a handful of earth of different colours and properties from the whole surface of the earth, and, having mixed all parts together, he deposited them between Tayif and Mekkah. The difference of men in colour and quality is derived from this original discrepancy and natural variety. When A’zrayil arrived in the glorious palace, Allah the most holy and omnipotent asked him whether the earth had this time taken refuge with Him or not. A’zrayil replied, ‘Yes.’ The Lord said: ‘If it took refuge with Me from thee, why didst thou not spare it?’ He replied: ‘I deemed obedience to Thee more necessary than pity for it.’ The Most High continued: ‘Depart, for I have made thee the angel of death, and I have placed the taking of the soul of Adam and of his seed into thy power.’ At these words A’zrayil began to weep, saying: ‘Among the children of men there will be prophets and saints who will undoubtedly hate me on this account.’ The Almighty rejoined: ‘I shall send so many complaints and diseases upon mankind, that, on account of the vehemence of their afflictions, they will entertain no enmity for thee, and none of their deeds will be a cause of grief to thee.’

In short, when that handful of clay was placed between Mekkah and Tayif, the clouds of the Almighty’s mercy rained showers of mercy on it for many years, during which time the Lord and Bestower of good gifts was engaged in leavening man’s temperament with the hand of love and compassion, and impregnated his nature according to his foreknowledge with every property necessary for the manifester of successorship. It is recorded in ancient books that the inscrutable Creator had formed the body of Adam of black putrid clay, and had left it to exsiccate; it remained for forty years in this drying state between Mekkah and Tayif, when an angel passed near it, saying: ‘The Lord, whose name be praised, has not created a handsomer thing than this; probably on this man the high dignity of successorship will be conferred.’ When Adam was yet in this drying stage, Eblis passed one day near him with some angels, and when he struck the abdomen of the clay figure, it sounded like a potter’s vessel. Eblis said: ‘This individual is hollow, his architecture is neither substantial nor firm, he will soon be liable to get the colic.’ Within himself he said: ‘If God exalts him above me I shall not obey him, and if I get authority over him I shall do my best to ruin him.’ Then addressing the angels, he asked: ‘Should the Almighty, after appointing this creature over you, command you to obey him, what would you do?’ They replied: ‘We shall fulfil the conditions of obedience, and girding our loins with submission, we shall not requite the favours of our benefactor with rebellion and ingratitude.’ Many expounders of the verse, ‘I know that which ye know not,’⁴⁶ have referred it to the intention of obedience openly avowed by the angels, and to the prevarication secretly meditated by Eblis.

When the time had arrived that the happy tidings of the morning of the greatest substitute’s [i.e. Adam’s] existence should dawn from the horizon of the Giver of gifts and Source of liberality; the radiation of the sun of his felicity should begin to shine from the orient of excellence and grace; that the keys of intentions and desires should be entrusted to the grasp of his good pleasures and intelligence; that the locks of the ways and means should be abandoned to his power and discernment; that the castle of his body should become illuminated by the lightning of vitality; and that the breeze of prosperity should begin to permeate the rose grove of his beauty; then the Holy Ghost hastened, by command of the Most Holy, in company with the faithful spirit [i.e. Gabriel], towards the body of Adam; but as his nature appeared to the subtle and luminous soul to be thick and dark, it [i.e. the soul] refused to descend into that mansion until the allocution of the Lord of Lords reached it: ‘Enter into it unwillingly, and depart out of it unwillingly.’ The soul began to enter by his blessed head, and wherever it penetrated, the body of Adam was changed into flesh and skin. Before the soul had permeated all his [i.e. Adam’s] noble members, he exclaimed: ‘O Lord! hasten to complete my creation before the night sets in.’ Therefore the Lord said: ‘Man is created of haste.’⁴⁷ Meanwhile Adam sneezed, and by divine inspiration began to praise and to thank the Lord of glory, saying: ‘Praise be to Allah, the Lord of both worlds!’ Then he was honoured with the reply: ‘Thy Lord have mercy on thee,’ and the Lord Most High said also: ‘My compassion preceded My wrath,’ because Adam became the recipient of favour and grace before he had adored God, and was afflicted with the pain of exclusion only after he had committed sin.

Astronomers state that the soul entered the body of Adam on a Friday, on the tenth of [the month of] Moharram, wherefore that day is called a’ashura [decade]. It happened at a time when the first degree of Capricorn was on the eastern horizon, Saturn in the sign of Gemini, Jupiter in Pisces, Mars in Aries, the Moon in Leo, the Sun and Mercury in Virgo, and Venus in Libra. Some have said that when Adam—u. w. peace—was formed, all the stars were in the highest degrees except Mercury; but He [Allah] knows best the truth of the case. When Adam was ready, the Bestower of all gifts imparted to him the denominations, ‘and He taught Adam the names of all things, and then proposed them to the angels,’⁴⁸ and examined Adam and the angels; when the former was first created, the latter said to each other: ‘Whatever our Omnipotent Nourisher creates, and whomsoever He seats upon the throne of successorship, that person will not be dearer to Him than we are, and by the predestination of [His] acquiescence, we shall be wiser than he, since we have served many years in the mansion of Him who knows everything, absent or present, and we have received knowledge by means of the Preserved Table.’

Distich:

Before Moslem schools, Christian convents and idol temples were built. We have been with Thee in the creations of beings.

The angels, being unable to rehearse the names, acknowledged their inability, saying: ‘Praise be unto Thee, we have no knowledge but what Thou teachest us; for Thou art knowing and wise.’⁴⁹ Adam was adorned with external beauty and internal perfection; the highest angels were ordered to worship his essence, endowed with perfect qualities, for the purpose of honouring him. A company of them advanced with the step of submission, and placed the forehead of humility on the ground, except Eblis, ‘who refused, and was puffed up with pride, and became of the number of unbelievers.’⁵⁰ Consequently he was prohibited from entering paradise, accursed for ever, and excluded from the palace of the Sempiternal.

Distich:

The altar of Thy two eyebrows is so lovely That the angel is cursed who loves Thee not.

Historians have recorded that the noble mind of Adam felt in paradise a yearning for a companion and intimate friend, and that the Beneficent Sovereign, whose holy essence is free from the imperfection of slumber and sleep, willing to gratify the desire of the first man, appointed the king of somnolency over the city of his existence, and created Eve from his left side, without his being aware of it. When he awoke, and Eve attracted his august attention, he asked her: ‘Who art, and why comest thou?’ She replied: ‘I am one of thy members, and the Almighty— whose name be praised and exalted—has created me to become thy companion and wife.’ Adam was rejoiced at these words, and having offered prayers of gratitude, matrimony was solemnized between them. It is said that the marriage oration was pronounced by the Gracious and Beneficent [God], which, according to the most authentic traditions, consisted of the following words: ‘In the name of Allah, the merciful, the clement! Praise is My garment, magnificence My cloak, grandeur My veil, and all creatures are My men-servants, and My maid-servants. Muhammad —u. w. bl., etc.—is My beloved and My prophet! I have paired all things to point to My unity. I call to witness My angels, and the dwellers in My heavens, and the bearers of My throne, that I have married Eve, My maid-servant, by the miracle of My creation, and by an act of My omnipotence, to Adam—o. w. b. p.—with the marriage portion of My adoration, praise,⁵¹ purity and sanctity. She bears witness that there is no God but Allah; One having no partner. O Adam and Eve! dwell ye two in My paradise, and eat of My fruits, but approach not My tree. Peace be upon you with My mercy and blessing.’ Then Adam and Eve dwelt in the spacious courts of paradise according to the sacred verse: ‘O Adam! dwell thou and thy wife in the garden.’⁵² The enjoyment of all the good things was licit to them except the forbidden fruit, as the Most High said: ‘Eat of the fruit thereof plentifully wherever ye will, but approach not this tree, lest ye become of the number of the transgressors.’⁵³ The learned differ about the prohibited tree, but the generally received opinion is, that it was the wheat plant. It is related that when the gardens of intimacy between Adam and Eve were opened, they rushed at full speed to enjoy them.

Satan having been condemned to everlasting damnation, prohibited from entering paradise, and shut out from the society of angels, the impure entrails of that accursed one were kindled with the flames of envy and covetousness. He was constantly planning how he might enter paradise and seduce Adam in such a way as to exclude him from it, and to compel him to take up his abode elsewhere. He first tried to induce the peacock to assist him, saying: ‘I consider myself under obligations of amity and love towards thee, and in past times we have been great friends; I now request thee to take me under the protection of thy wings, that I may enter paradise, and by some stratagem expel my inveterate enemy from it, and afterwards obtain it myself.’ The peacock refused, but advised him to try the serpent, which Eblis did, first beginning with suggestions, and reminding him of their ancient friendship, he explained his intention. Satan’s diabolical inspirations took effect upon the serpent, and giving him a place in his own throat, he thus introduced him into paradise without the gatekeeper’s knowledge. Eblis went to Adam and Eve and began to lament and weep. They knew him not, but asked for the reason of his distress, and he said: ‘I deplore the termination of your fate, because Allah—whose name be exalted— will expel you from this garden, and will deprive you of all these blessings. He will even change the comfort of your life into the affliction of death.’ After conversations of this kind, Eblis left them, and Adam and Eve were full of sadness and care; afterwards Eblis returned, and said to Adam: ‘If thou wilt place confidence in my words and follow my advice, I shall direct thee to a tree, and if thou eatest of the fruit thereof, thou wilt for ever abide in paradise, neither will the misery of death ever find entrance into the courts of thy posterity; God has said, “Adam, I shall point out to thee the tree of eternity, and a country which perishes not.”’ Adam asked: ‘Which is that tree?’ Eblis showed him the tree which he had been forbidden to approach, but Adam refrained from following his advice, whereupon he adjured them both [i.e. Adam and Eve], saying: ‘I give both of you good advice.’ Adam still resisted, and they separated. Eblis then again met Eve alone, and desisted not until he had persuaded her, and the serpent bore witness to the truth of his words. When Adam had returned, Eve said: ‘The serpent, who is one of the guardians of paradise, certifies to the truth of what our dear and faithful friend asserts, neither has he any interested object in view. Now, I shall first taste of the fruit, and if a misfortune befalls me, do thou intercede for me, or else eat thou likewise, that the everlasting kingdom of sempiternal bliss may fall to our lot.’ Eve then ate some of the fruit, and at her instigation Adam did so likewise. The fruit had not yet settled in Adam’s stomach when the ornaments of paradise suddenly disappeared, leaving their bodies in a state of nudity, which they strove to cover with the leaves of a fig-tree. When they were thus situated a divine allocution reached them as follows: ‘O Adam! knowest thou the cause of this nudity?’ He replied: ‘Yes, Lord, we have eaten of the forbidden fruit and not kept Thy commandment. The audacity of Eve was the cause of this presumption, for at her instigation I tasted of the fruit, and I drank the cup of this affliction at her invitation.’ Eve became confused at these words, and said: ‘My God! the serpent who is a guardian and watch of the garden has emboldened me to commit this deed. He swore that this is the tree of eternity, else no sin would have originated from me.’

The command, changing the form of the serpent, now went forth, and the Mighty Avenger addressed him thus: ‘Since thou hast been the promoter of this crime, be thou afflicted with imperfections and debilities. Crawl thou on the earth upon thy breast and thy abdomen; let turbid mud be thy food, and pass thou thy life in abjection.’ Before this event, the serpent had been the most beauteous creature in shape. Eve’s punishment consisted in the travail of parturition, menstruation, and subjection to her husband. Adam suffered the pains of being separated from the propinquity of the Almighty, the pangs of hunger, and the remorse of conscience. He was also condemned to toil for his subsistence. The figure of the peacock likewise became changed. The divine command of expulsion from paradise was issued to Adam and Eve as follows: ‘Get ye down the one of you an enemy unto the other.’⁵⁴ Whereon both of them fell from the gardens of paradise into the haunts of baseness and abjection. According to the most current tradition, Adam fell upon the mountain Serandib,⁵⁵ Eve into Jeddah, Eblis into Seistân, the serpent into Espahân, and the peacock into the district of Kâbul. The enmity between mortals and Eblis, as well as between the sons of Adam and the serpent, will subsist till the day of resurrection. Adam took with him from paradise a bag full of wheat, and thirty plants of corn, likewise the black-stone,⁵⁶ and a handful of leaves from the trees of paradise. Jebrâil descended from heaven, taught him to sow, to reap, even to make flour and to bake bread. It is related by Ebn A’bbâs that Adam stayed in paradise from noon till sunset according to the reckoning of that world. Some affirm that five hundred years, according to the reckoning of our world, amount to half a day in that world. When Adam arrived on earth he was afflicted with the miseries of this world, and with sorrow for his separation from Eve; his repentance augmented, and he abstained during forty days from food and drink. During three hundred years he continued to lament and to pray for pardon, until he was inspired with the following words: ‘There is no God besides Thee! Adoration and praise be to Thee! I have done evil and injured my own soul; have pity on me, for Thou art the most merciful of those who are merciful.’ After he had pronounced these words, Jebrâil brought the tidings of pardon, which changed Adam’s distress into peace, and his misery into comfort; but, despite of the glad tidings of forgiveness, he ceased not to be melancholy and ashamed:

Verse: Even after pardon, remorse abides.

Therefore he consulted Jebrâil on the propriety of acceptable worship by means of which the shame of sin, and the reproach of transgression, might be blotted out from the pages of his blessed mind. Meanwhile the command of God—w. n. b. pr.—was issued to Adam to build the Ka’bah—may Allah ennoble it. He accordingly wished to lay its foundation, and proceeded from Serandib in the company of Jebrâil, who facilitated his journey across deserts, and by the prosperity of that lord’s [i.e. Adam’s] progress, every country touched by his foot became civilized, cultivated, and wearing a happy and joyous aspect. When they arrived in the noble city of Mekkah, Adam laid the foundations of the Ka’bah according to the instruction received from Jebrâil, and with the aid of all the angels. He fixed the Black Stone, which he had brought from paradise, and in which the covenant book of the servant with the Lord of Glory is deposited, in a corner of the Ka’bah; and this house on earth is a symbol of the preserved tabernacle which is in heaven. Having learnt the ceremonies of the pilgrimage and of the circumambulation from Jebrâil, he then performed the visitation of the house of the Ka’bah, after terminating which, he ascended Mount A’rafat⁵⁷ in search of Eve, whom he had not seen for years, and the fervent desire of again meeting her had overwhelmed his mind. It so happened that Eve had likewise started from Jeddah⁵⁸ in search of Adam, and ascending Mount A’rafat had arrived near him, but remained unknown on account of the change of her complexion brought on by exposure to the sun. Jebrâil brought about their mutual recognition, wherefore that mountain obtained the name of A’rafat. After having enjoyed each other’s company in that place, they asked and obtained permission from the Almighty Creator to return to Serandib, because the soil of Mekkah was very arid, and its climate extremely hot. After accomplishing the journey, both arrived in Serandib, where Adam occupied himself with the extraction of iron ore from the mines, and with agriculture. Jebrâil communicated to them the divine ordinances, and enjoined them to receive God’s commands, and to endeavour to multiply their species, so that the tree of humanity might bear pleasant and noble fruits, since dominion over all creatures, and the enjoyment of all intellectual and sensuous impressions, were to be the lot of the children of men. After Adam and Eve had again become united, they spent their days in comfort and obedience, sometimes dwelling in India and sometimes in Arabia. For a long time there were no inhabitants in the world besides them, nor any houses besides the Ka’bah, till the Almighty gladdened those two individuals with a sagacious progeny who colonized various places of the world. Concerning the erection of the Ka’bah, there are also other opinions besides the one narrated in these pages.

STORY OF HABIL AND QABIL (ABEL AND CAIN).

The Almighty—w. n. b. pr.—has said: ‘Relate unto them also the history of the two sons of Adam with truth. When they offered their offering, and it was accepted from one of them, and was not accepted from the other.’⁵⁹

The stringers of the pearls of words, and the narrators of stories old and new, have related that every time Eve became pregnant she was delivered of a boy and girl. The first child born of her was Qabil (Cain), with his twin sister Aqlemia; the second was Habil (Abel), with his sister Labûda. When these children attained the age of maturity, Adam, by the command of God—w. n. b. pr.—desired to marry Labûda to Qabil and Aqlemia to Habil, but as Aqlemia was extremely beautiful, Qabil refused, and said that he would not allow his twin sister to be subject to anyone; reproached his father for loving Habil more than himself, and for being on that account desirous to give him Aqlemia. Adam replied: ‘I act thus in conformity with the information brought by Jebrâil, and not for the sake of the strong love which I bear towards Habil, and because it is incumbent upon worshippers to obey their Lord, whose name be exalted.’ Qabil was of an obstinate and litigious temper, and his father’s entreaties proved of no avail. At last Adam said: ‘Do you both offer sacrifice, and he whose offering is accepted shall obtain Aqlemia.’

It was customary when two individuals were at enmity to carry eatables to the top of a mountain, and to deposit them there; whereon a white fire descended from heaven, and first approaching the individual who was right in the matter, it afterwards turned to his sacrifice and consumed it totally. When Adam hinted at the sacrifice both brothers agreed to it, and Habil, who was a shepherd, brought a fat sheep; Qabil, who was a farmer, placed a sheaf of wheat on the mountain, but at the same time resolved not to yield his sister to anyone, whether his offering was accepted or not; Habil, on the other hand, openly and secretly resigned himself to the judgment of the Creator. When the fire descended by the prayer of the Lord Adam from the sky, it first approached Qabil and his sacrifice, but touched it not. Then it sped to Habil’s oblation, and entirely devoured it. In consequence thereof the depravity of envy and hatred so overpowered Qabil that he threatened to slay Habil. The latter, however, replied: ‘God—w. n. b. ex.—receives the offering of the pious, and if thou stretchest forth thy hand to murder me, I shall offer no resistance, because I dread the Omnipotent Nourisher of the inhabitants of the world.’ When enmity had thus openly broken out between the brothers, Adam said to them: ‘Do not distress me, but wait for my return from the house of Allah,⁶⁰ which He has commanded me to visit.’ After Adam’s departure on his pilgrimage, Qabil was watching for an opportunity, until one day he found Habil on the top of a mountain asleep, and, at the instigation of Satan, struck him such a blow on the head with a stone that he will not awake until the day of the resurrection. This dreadful crime remains on record against Qabil. May Allah reward him with the worst of rewards. Not knowing what to do with his brother’s body, so as to remove it out of sight, Qabil was carrying it about for several days, until the Almighty—w. n. b. pr.—incited two crows to fight with each other, and one of them having been slain in the contest, the other buried it underground. Qabil perceived this, and said: ‘Woe is me! am I unable to be like this raven?’⁶¹ He then concealed his brother’s corpse under the ground. When Adam had performed the ceremonies of the pilgrimage, he returned, but found the world not to be in its usual state, because the trees had become yellow [i.e. withered] from the darkness of tyranny; the victuals had changed their savour, the fruits had become sour, the waters bitter, and the surface of the earth was impure. From these signs he concluded that something dreadful must have happened. When, on the termination of his journey, he arrived home, Qabil came to meet his father, who asked: ‘Where is Habil?’ But the murderer replied: ‘Was I his surety or his keeper,⁶² that thou requirest him from me? His sheep have often devastated my fields, and for fear of this he has fled.’ Adam —u. w. bl., etc.—understood the state of the case from these words, and in some books it is recorded that Jebrâil had informed him of what had befallen Habil. At any rate, he began to deplore the loss of his beloved son. Habil was the most sagacious and intelligent of Adam’s sons. His father was extremely fond of him, and in his memory composed an elegy in the Syriac tongue, distributed it among all his children, and commanded them to learn it by heart, bequeathing it to all succeeding generations. These verses have also been translated into Arabic, and as they are well known, the two first lines are here inserted.

Verses:

Changed is the country and everything therein; The face of the earth has changed for the worse.63

When Adam the pure—u. w., etc.—had fulfilled the duties of mourning, he cursed Qabil, who became estranged from mankind and associated with no one. He fled from everyone he saw; he roamed about on mountains and in deserts, killing mountain-goats by throwing stones at their heads, and eating their flesh. It is said that this is the reason why wild animals run away at the sight of men. In many historical books it is related that when Adam’s time of lamentation for Habil had expired, the divine command to retaliate upon Qabil reached him. Adam informed Qabil of it, but the latter avoided it [i.e. retaliation] by taking refuge in the deserts of Yemen, where he remained during his whole life, worshipping fire and building fire-temples, because Satan had informed him that his sacrifice had not been accepted, as Habil had secretly worshipped fire, which had therefore obeyed him and consumed his offering. Qabil became a follower of Satan, and his offspring increased greatly in that country; they began to invent and to play upon musical instruments, to drink wine and to do shameful things. It is related that a short time after Habil’s death and Qabil’s flight to Yemen, the Lord and Giver of all good gifts betowed Sheth [Seth] upon Adam, as will be narrated by-and-by.

RECORD OF ADAM’S PROGENY AND OF HIS PROPHECY.

It is related in the history entitled ‘Bedayet we Nihayet’ [the beginning and the end] that Adam went every year on pilgrimage to the holy city of Mekkah for the purpose of circumambulating the Ka’bah, and performing all the required ceremonies. Once when he had fulfilled all his duties he fell asleep in the rear of A’rafat, called Vâdi of No’mân, where the Almighty—w. n. b. pr.—produced the entire progeny from his loins, and placed them all at Adam’s right and left side.⁶⁴ When he awoke he glanced to his right side, and beheld luminous individuals, and also Jebrâil; he interrogated the latter about them, and was informed that these were the companions of the right hand, and the Cherubim of the palace of monotheism [originating] from the seed of Adam. At that moment the divine allocution arrived: ‘These are in paradise.’ When Adam looked at the company on his left side, he beheld those pertaining to darkness, and again asked Jebrâil: ‘Who are these?’ He replied: ‘These are the companions of the left hand excluded from the mercy of Allah.’ And then another announcement arrived from Allah, namely: ‘These are in fire.’ It is related that when the descendants of Adam were presented to him, his eyes alighted on a youth among the companions of the right hand who was of beautiful countenance and symmetrical in stature. He was weeping, and this reminded Adam of his own sorrow when he was expelled from paradise. On questioning Jebrâil, he replied: ‘This is one of thy celebrated descendants; his name is David. He is weeping on account of sin, and will be a prophet.’ Adam inquired about the length of his life, and was informed that its duration would be sixty years. Hereupon Adam turned his face towards the altar of prayer, saying: ‘O Lord, take away forty years from my life, and add them to his life.’ His prayer was granted, and David’s life was decreed to consist of one hundred years. When Adam had attained the age of nine hundred and sixty years, A’zrayil visited him to execute the business wherewith he had been entrusted. Adam said: ‘It is not yet time to take my soul, because, according to the divine promise, forty years of my life still remain.’ A’zrayil replied: ‘Thou hast bestowed forty years of thy life upon David.’ This Adam denied, and on reporting the circumstance at the Court of Glory, A’zrayil was ordered not to molest Adam before the expiration of the above-mentioned time, nor to deduct any from the appointed hundred years of David. After Adam had thus repented of his gift, the Beneficent King issued a decree that the children of men should henceforth in their grants and transactions make use of documents and contracts with the signature of witnesses, so that no one could afterwards resort to subterfuges; and if they did so they should not be listened to at all.

It is narrated in the history of Tabari, and in that of Hâfez Abru, that the vision which Adam had of all his descendants took place when he was asleep in the Vâdi of No’mân. It is, however, admitted by all that after beholding his entire offspring, he manifested a desire of returning to his usual abode, when suddenly the inspiration and divine command reached him to proceed to Yemen, and to direct Qabil, his children, and his followers, to the right road, and to restrain him from walking in the paths of sin and wickedness. Accordingly Adam travelled to their habitations, and preached to Qabil and to his adherents, who had adopted the religion of idolatry, and considered the drinking of wine and the worship of idols to be licit. Adam performed signs and miracles as is the wont of prophets, and converted many of his own and some of Qabil’s descendants, but the remainder continued to walk in obstinacy, sin, and infidelity, and were thus condemned for ever to walk in perdition.

RECORD OF THE REMOVAL OF ADAM—W. N. B. BL.—FROM THE DUNGHILL OF AFFLICTION TO THE GARDENS OF PARADISE.

When one thousand years of Adam’s life had elapsed, the season had arrived for the diploma of his life to be stamped with the signet of, ‘When their fate comes, they will not be respited an hour, nor hurried’; and the foreordained decree was to be sealed with the ring of, ‘All which is upon it [i.e. the earth] is perishable.’ Resigning himself to the will of heaven, he ordered all his sagacious children and noble relatives to assemble. When they were all present he commanded them to obey the Merciful and the Clement [Allah], and warned them not to follow Satan. He appointed Sheth, who was the most intelligent and beautiful of his children, to be his successor and their governor, and feeling a desire for the oil and olives of paradise, he despatched him to Mount Sinai to implore the most Beneficent of benefactors to grant him his wish. Sheth fulfilled his commission, and, raising his hands in prayer, said: ‘O Lord! Thy servant Adam is sick, and his mind covets the oil and olives of paradise.’ After this ejaculation he heard the words, ‘Bring thy pitcher,’ and, holding forth his earthen vessel, it was in a moment filled with what Adam’s heart desired; and, returning from Mount Sinai, he offered it to his father, who anointed his body with the oil, and partook of the olives. His malady then abated, but in a short time again returned; and when Adam was sorely afflicted therewith he said to his children: ‘The craving for the fruits of paradise has again overpowered me. Go bring me some.’ They obeyed, and when they had proceeded a short way on their journey they met Jebrâil with a company of angels, bearing a shroud and coffin. The angels interrogated the children of men, who informed them of their intention. Jebrâil said: ‘Return! for we have come to fulfil his wishes and his desires.’ The children accordingly went back, and perceived angels sitting with Adam, whom Jebrâil asked about his health, and he replied: ‘The violence of pain has so overcome me that I am unable to rise to say my prayers.’ Eve sat behind him and wept, whereon Adam said to her: ‘Go out from here, and leave me to the messengers of the Omnipotent Nourisher, because all the misfortunes I ever endured have befallen me through thee.’ Hereupon Eve and her daughters went aside, and A’zrayil was engaged in taking hold of Adam’s soul, who was praising and adoring God. At that time Jebrâil said to the angel of death: ‘Take this poor soul gently and easily, for thou knowest well Adam to be the individual whom the Almighty has created with the hand of His power, has breathed His own spirit into him, has ordered us to worship him, and has appointed him to the chief place in paradise.’ When the angel of death had terminated his business, Jebrâil put a robe on Adam, after which he performed the ablution and shrouding of the corpse. According to the most current tradition, his grave was dug on Mount Abuqbis,⁶⁵ where the angels, Eve, the sons and daughters of Adam, ranged themselves. According to the most approved records, Jebrâil made Sheth stand in front of himself while he recited the prayers over the corpse, which was then placed into the grave and covered with earth. On that occasion Jebrâil said to the children of Adam: ‘If you act according to the advice of your father, you will never go astray. You ought to know that death can be avoided by no one. What you have seen done by us with reference to washing and shrouding the corpse and saying prayers, do so likewise with all your dead bodies, for such is the command of God. You shall not see these angels any more till the hour of the resurrection. Now farewell.’

POSTSCRIPT TO THE STORY OF THE FATHER OF MANKIND, U. W. B. BL., ETC., AND A RECORD OF THE GOOD AND EVIL THAT BEFELL HIM.

This appendix is divided into several paragraphs, the contents of which have been found worth recording by historians as matters of interest and knowledge.

EXPLANATION OF HIS NAMES AND SURNAMES.

The author of the ‘Lutayif-ul-ma’aruf’ has related that since the blessed form of Adam was fashioned of the Adim of the earth, i.e. of its surface, he was called Adam. Others inform us that Adam was wheat-coloured, and therefore named Adam, according to which meaning the word would be derived from Adama. Others, again, are of opinion that the name Adam may have originated from the expression Adamat, which means, ‘she united the two things when she was created between them,’ but He [i.e. Allah] knows best.

Being of a very upright character, Adam was surnamed ‘the pure one of God,’ and the ‘father of mankind,’ because he was our common ancestor. Allah—w. n. b. ex. —said, ‘It is He who created you from one breath [or individual, i.e. Adam], and He created from it its [or his, i.e. Adam’s] spouse.’ It is recorded in the book of Edris [Enoch?] that the inscrutable Creator wished in the first creation to extend the surface of His power over the earth, and created first a man from the soil, whose name is called Armanûs in the Syriac language. At that time He created from his [i.e. the man’s] breath a consort for him to be his wife, and by means of this intercourse He originated connexion and parturition, and until the hour of the resurrection, when the second creation will begin, all the affairs of this world are but a sequence of that first arrangement. Thalebi says that Adam, being questioned by the angels about Eve’s name, he replied: ‘Since Eve [Havva] is a member of my members, and was created by Him who is living [Hay] from all eternity, she was thus named.’

RECORD OF THE BEARDS OF THE CHILDREN OF ADAM.

Muhammad Bin Esahâq says that Adam had no beard, and that Sheth was the first of his sons who had thus been adorned. Adam was of high stature, had curling ringlets, a brown complexion, and was distinguished by superior beauty from all other creatures in the world. There is a difference of opinion concerning the height of Adam’s body, but some of the Emâms have a tradition from the lord of prophecy [i.e. Muhammad] that he affirmed Adam’s stature to have been sixty cubits high; doctors of theology have augmented and diminished this number, but the edict of the Emâms is authentic, and the features of Eve perfectly resembled those of Adam.

THE TEACHING OF NAMES.

Some expounders affirm that the Almighty—w. n. b. ex. —had taught Adam the names of all things of this world, even so far as those of dishes and plates. Others say that the knowing of names is a metaphor of the names of angels; others, again, say that God taught him various languages. One of the followers⁶⁶ states that this knowledge implies an acquaintance with the revealed books⁶⁷, and predestined events; some say that the science of the peculiar properties of all things is meant; many other views are also current, but the true knowledge is with Allah.

RECORD OF AFFLICTIONS.

In several histories it is mentioned that when Adam hastened to eat of the fruit from the prohibited tree, the Almighty punished him with ten misfortunes:

1. He reproved him saying: ‘Have I not forbidden that tree to both of you, and said to you that Satan is your evident enemy?’

2. By putting him to shame among the inhabitants of paradise, in consequence of the exposure of his nudity.

3. By changing his outward freshness. One of the followers states that before Adam’s transgression his skin was polished like the nails, but after sinning it all disappeared, and only a little remained on the tips of his fingers to augment his remorse every time he looked at them.

4. By surnaming him ‘after propinquity,’⁶⁸ and expelling him from the mansions of paradise.

5. By afflicting him during two hundred, and, according to others, during three hundred years with separation from Himself [i.e. from Allah].

Distich:

The heart experienced many trials in this world, But found none harder than separation from the Friend [i.e. Allah].

6. By causing discord between Adam and Eve, who instigated him to eat of the [forbidden] fruit, according to the words: ‘We threw among them enmity and hatred till the day of the resurrection,’ and this quality took effect on their progeny.

7. By surnaming him a sinner, and by publishing the report of ‘Adam rebelled against his Lord and went astray’ among the inhabitants of the world. It is related of Ebrahim, the friend [of God], that he prayed to the Lord of Glory to explain to him the mystery of these words, whereon the announcement came: ‘For I have known that the opposition of a lover towards a lover is a terrible affair.’

8. By appointing Satan and his progeny, who are the true enemies of mankind, to reign over Adam and his offspring, and to stretch forth their arms of oppression according to the verse, ‘And draw upon them thy horse and foot.’

9. By making the base world an abode of trial to the sons of Adam, and afflicting him and his seed with the troubles thereof.

10. By punishing him with various fatigues, and causing him to drink the unpalatable beverage of this inconstant world, which after all betrays man.

Verses:

The world, according to its name, is leaping;69 Intellect has called it vanity. Happy is he who, from the racecourse of spirits, Has not descended into the arena of bodies.

DESCRIPTION OF PARADISE.

From historical accounts it appears that there is a variety of opinions among Muhammadan divines on the site of paradise, many of whom, especially some of the companions and followers of the prophet, such as Abu Harira, Hodaifa Alyamani, and Abu Mâlek Ush-shujáyi— u. w. b., etc.—assert that the paradise of Adam was the paradise of promise. Some, again, such as Abdullah Bin Abbâs—u. w. b., etc.—and others, say that it was not the paradise of promise.⁷⁰ Firstly, because in that garden he was prohibited to touch the forbidden tree; secondly, because in it he was occupied, he slept, and reposed; thirdly, because Eblis found admittance to that place: consequently, it is impossible that it should have been the paradise of promise. With this opinion also agrees the text of the Pentateuch, which Jewish scholars have preserved from generation to generation up to the present day. Between the adherents of the second opinion there is again a schism whether this paradise was in heaven or on earth. Some maintain that it was in heaven, since God commanded Adam to get down, which undoubtedly points to the descent from heaven. Ebn Yahia, who is one of the greatest scholars, asserts, with another party, that it was on earth, since the Almighty tried Adam and Eve by commanding them not to eat of the forbidden fruit; therefore that garden was a locality prepared by the Lord of Glory in order to tempt them. It is asserted that the tradition handed down from the refuge of prophecy [i.e. Muhammad] concerning Adam’s departure from this world is confirmatory of this opinion. The tradition resembles the one narrated above, and is as follows: When the time of Adam’s death drew near, he asked his children to bring a bunch of grapes of paradise. They complied with his request, and while they were on the road they met some angels, who questioned them about their errand. The children replied: ‘Our dear father wishes to eat a bunch of the grapes of paradise, and in obedience to his will we have started.’ The angels said: ‘Return; for the Almighty—w. n. b. ex.—has completed His business.’ When the children returned, they found that Adam was being shrouded and buried. From this account it appears that if the children of Adam had not been able to enter paradise, they would not have gone in search of its grapes.

The Emâm Abul-Hasan Fariâbi has recorded, in the book entitled ‘Asûl Jâmi’a,’ that the paradise of Adam was in the country of Filisteen [in Syria], and it was a garden containing many green shrubs; and this confirms it [that Adam was in the terrestrial paradise], because he was commanded and prohibited. But command and prohibition take place only in this world, and that which his lordship the Qâzi Nassir-ud-din Beidhavi has copied from the Mutazzelite U’lamâ concerning paradise agrees with the just-mentioned opinion. It is related in the book entitled ‘Ihvân-ussafa,’ in the twenty-first treatise, which is called the ‘Treatise of the Animate Being,’ that when [the person of] Adam was completely finished, and the angels worshipped him, the divine command was issued to translate his splendid couch to paradise, and that paradise was a garden situated on the top of the ruby mountain in the direction of the east; it was so high that neither man nor beast could ascend it; the climate of that garden was temperate, and the same throughout the year; it was unparalleled in freshness and verdure, and one of the principal poets says concerning it:

Verses:

Adam promenaded in a garden whose Servant and slave is the spring of paradise. Its trees were lignum aloe, its leaves of emerald, Its foundation Concha Veneris, its earth ambergris. A deep lake in the parterre of the park Clear like the heart of a sage, and nature of an orator, Pure like a spirit and beauteous like knowledge; Its atmosphere pellucid, and subtle like fire; Silver-bodied fishes sporting in it Like the virgin moon in the celestial sphere.

The partisans of the just-mentioned opinion have affirmed that the command, ‘Get ye all down from hence,’ is synonymous with the words, ‘Get ye down into Egypt, for ye shall obtain what ye ask;’ and many opinions like these have been broached by eloquent authors. But the writer of this book affirms that such of the preceding opinions as are in accordance with the orthodox belief of the Sonna⁷¹ are to be adopted, because salvation is in them.

THE LAW OF THE BOOK [OF ADAM].

The law of Adam prescribed the worship of Allah, prayers, fasting, abstinence from wine and pork; and the opinion that wine was first made in Jamshid’s time is not deserving of any credit. His book [i.e. Adam’s] contained forty pages; some say twenty-one. It treated on the secrets of natural philosophy, the knowledge of useful and noxious things, medicine, the way of subjecting Jinns and devils, geometry, arithmetic, and other sciences.

MIRACLES.

It has been mentioned before that when Qabil separated from his father and went to the country of Yemen, Eblis instructed him in fire-worship, which he and his children adopted. They built fire-temples, and were engaged in worshipping fire. At that time the divine inspiration reached Adam, commanding him to go among them, and to direct Qabil, with his offspring, to the true way, as has already been mentioned above. Adam went to Yemen, and, having announced his mission, his descendants demanded a miracle from him, whereupon he started water for them from gravel-stones; on another occasion he called a tree at a distance to approach him, which obeyed and came to him; thirdly, a handful of gravel which he held in the palm of his hand bore testimony to the truth of his prophetship. One of the numerous miracles worked by him to prove his mission to Qabil was that he prohibited wild beasts from injuring his children, whereon they ceased to attack them. He also miraculously traversed deserts and seas; but if all his wonderful performances were to be related, they would greatly lengthen this account.