Worse trouble, however, was impending in Syria, where 'Uthmán's kinsman Mu'áwiya was governor, and where the Mu'áwiya refuses to acknowledge 'Alí as Caliph. Umayyad influence and interest were supreme. 'Alí, refusing to listen to those who advised him not to interfere with this powerful and cunning governor, persisted in his intention of at once recalling him from his post. Mu'áwiya refused to obey the summons, and retaliated by roundly accusing 'Alí of being privy to 'Uthmán's murder, a charge which had been already formulated by Walíd b. 'Uqba (who, as we have seen, had suffered punishment at 'Alí's hands), in some verses* addressed to the Háshimites in general, which conclude:—
“Ye have betrayed him ('Uthmán) in order that ye might take his place,
Even as once Kisrá (Khusraw Parwíz) was betrayed by his satraps.”
Mu'áwiya, therefore, posing as the avenger of 'Uthmán, not merely refused to obey 'Alí, or to acknowledge him as Caliph, but himself laid claim to this title, a pretension in which he was ably supported by the astute 'Amr ibnu'l-'Áṣ, to whom, as the reward of his services, he promised the government of Egypt. All negotiations having failed, 'Alí, who had left Madína and established himself at Kúfa, declared war on Mu'áwiya and his Syrians, and, with an army of fifty thousand Battle of Ṣiffín. men, marched against him. The two armies met at Ṣiffín, a place lying between Aleppo and Emesa (Ḥims) in Syria, and after several weeks of desultory skirmishing and fruitless negotiations, a pitched battle was fought in the last days of July, A.D. 657. On the third day victory inclined decisively to 'Alí's side, when 'Amr ibnu'l-'Áṣ, ever fertile in stratagems, counselled Mu'áwiya to bid his troops raise aloft on their lances leaves of the Qur'án, and cry, “The Law of God! The Law of God! Let that arbitrate between us!” In vain did 'Alí warn his followers against this device, and urge them to follow up their advantage; the fanatical puritans who formed the backbone of his army refused to fight against men who appealed to the Qur'án; a truce was called; arbitration was accepted by both parties; and even here 'Alí was forced to accept as his representative the feeble and irresolute Abú Músá al-Ash'arí, whom he had but lately dismissed for his lukewarmness from the government of Kúfa, while Mu'áwiya's cause was committed to the wily and resourceful 'Amr ibnu'l-'Áṣ, who, by another discreditable Mu'áwiya proclaimed Caliph, Feb., 658. trick,* succeeded in getting 'Alí set aside and Mu'áwiya declared Caliph. This took place at Dawmatu'l-Jandal (a place in the Syrian desert just south of the thirtieth degree of latitude, and about equidistant from Damascus and Baṣra), in February, A.D. 658.
On the disappointment and disgust of 'Alí and his followers
it is needless to dwell. A daily commination service, wherein
'Alí's position.
Mu'áwiya and his allies were solemnly anathematised
by name, was instituted in the mosques
of 'Iráq, which province still remained more or less faithful
to 'Alí; and Mu'áwiya returned the compliment at Damascus,
where the cursing of 'Alí, his sons and adherents, remained in
force till it was abolished by 'Umar II, almost the only God-
'Alí's followers included, besides personal friends and retainers, Composition of 'Ali's forces. political schemers, and the factious and unsteady inhabitants of Baṣra and Kúfa, two parties, diametrically opposed in their views, which represented the two most ancient sects of Islám, the Shí'ites, and the Khárijites. The former were the devoted partisans of 'Alí, the “Faction” (Shí'a) of him and his House, the defenders in The Shí'ites. general of the theory which has been exposed at pp. 130 et seqq., and which we may briefly define as the theory of the Divine Right of the Prophet's descendants and nearest of kin to wield the supreme authority in Islám, both temporal and spiritual. Of these, and of the fantastic doctrines propounded and maintained by the more extreme amongst them, we shall have to speak repeatedly in the following pages, and will only add here that these extreme views as to the sanctity, nay, divinity, of 'Alí had, even during his lifetime, and in spite of his strong disapprobation, found a vigorous exponent in the converted Jew, 'Abdu'lláh ibn Sabá,* who carried on a propaganda in Egypt as early as A.D. 653, during the Caliphate of 'Uthmán.
The Khárijites (Khawárij), “Seceders,”*
or (as Muir calls
them) “Theocratic Separatists,” represented the extreme demo-
The Khawárij.
cratic view that any free Arab was eligible for
election as Caliph, and that any Caliph who
ceased to give satisfaction to the commonwealth of believers
might be deposed.*
Their ranks were chiefly recruited from
the true Arabs of the desert (especially certain important tribes
like Tamím), and the heroes of Qádisiyya and other hard-
To this democratic party the aristocracy of Islám, represented by 'Alí and the Háshimite faction of Quraysh, was only in degree less distasteful than the aristocracy of heathenesse, represented by Mu'áwiya and the Umayyads; and though they fought on 'Alí's side at the Battle of Ṣiffín, their alliance, as has been already observed, was by no means an unmixed advantage. For after the fiasco resulting from the arbitration on which they themselves had insisted, they came to 'Alí saying,* “Arbitration belongs to God alone. What ailed thee that thou madest men arbiters?” “I never acquiesced in the matter of this arbitration,” replied 'Alí; “it was ye who wished for it, and I told you that it was a stratagem on the part of the Syrians, and bade you fight your foes, but ye refused aught save arbitration, and overrode my judgment. But when there was no escape from arbitration, I made it a condition with the umpires that they should act in accordance with God's Scripture, … but they differed, and acted contrary to Scripture, acting in accordance with their own desires; so we are still of our original opinion as to giving them battle.” “There is no doubt,” answered the Khárijites, “that we originally acquiesced in the arbitration, but we have repented of it, and recognise that we acted in error. If now thou wilt confess thine infidelity (kufr), and pray God to pardon thy fault and thine error in surrendering the arbitration to men, we will return with thee to do battle with thine enemy and our enemy, else will we dissociate ourselves from thee.”
'Alí was naturally incensed at the unreasonable behaviour of these men, but his remonstrances and exhortations were of The Battle of Nahruwán. no avail, and ere his retreating army reached Kúfa, twelve thousand of the malcontents did, as they had threatened, dissociate themselves from him, and retired to Ḥarúrá, where they encamped. Adopting as their warcry the words “Lá ḥukma illá li'lláh!” (“Arbitration belongs to none save God!”), they advanced towards Madá'in (Ctesiphon) with the intention of occupying it and establishing a “Council of Representatives” which should serve “as a model to the ungodly cities all around.”* Foiled in this endeavour by the foresight of the governor, they continued their march to Nahruwán, near the Persian frontier. They also nominated a Caliph of their own—'Abdu'lláh b. Wahb of the tribe of Rásib)* —on March 22, A.D. 658, and proceeded to slay as unbelievers Muslims who did not share their views, recognise their Caliph, and consent to curse both 'Uthmán and 'Alí. Ferocity was strangely mixed with the most exaggerated scruples in their actions. One of them picked up a date which had fallen from the tree and placed it in his mouth, but cast it away when some of his companions cried out, “Thou hast eaten it without right, having taken it without payment!” Another smote with his sword a pig which happened to pass by him, and hamstrung it. “This,” exclaimed his fellows, “is a mischief on the earth!” Thereupon he sought out the owner and paid him compensation.* On the other hand harmless travellers were slain, and women great with child were ripped open with the sword. For such cruelties the fanatics offered no apology; on the contrary, when invited by 'Alí to surrender the murderers and depart in peace, they cried, “We have all taken part in the slaughter of the heathen!”