SECTION THE TENTH: ON THE SYSTEM OF THOSE WHO PROFESS THE DOCTRINE OF TARK.* — Tark śastra is the science of dialectics; it is divided into sixteen parts, as follow: THE FIRST, Pramána;* this is the applica­tion of the science, which is subdivided into four parts: 1. Paríkshá;* that is, evidence, which with them is the sense of discriminating what is particular and well defined; 2. Anumána;* that is, after having perceived the mark of an object, to infer its existence; thus shall I call a mountain igni-vomous, on account of the smoke which proceeds from it; 3. Apamána;* that is “resemblance;” thus I shall say: such as is a cow, such is also an elk (or gayal);* although I may not have seen an elk, but only heard that it is like a cow; 4. Sabda;* that is, “sound:” by these they mean speeches which people adopt as sacred; such “as the Hindus have the Vedas, and the Muselmans the Koran.” These are the four parts which constitute the Pramána.

THE SECOND of the sixteen divisions of the Tark sastra is Pramiti,* that is, the comprehension of what is conjoint and concomitant. This division is subdivided into twelve parts, namely, 1. Atmá,* that is “spirit;” and means something which is distinct from what is material and sentient; some­thing everlasting, eternal, very subtile in all bodies; 2. Sarírá,* that is “body;” and this they define to be the seat of sensuality and of maladies; 3. Indriya ,* “the exterior senses;” and these they call the organs of perception; 4. Artha,* and this they declare to be “the earthly existences;” 5. Bud­dhi ,* which they term “knowledge;” 6. Manas,* “or the interior sense, which with the Hindus is the heart,” and that is enough; 7. Pravritti,* and this consists in justice or injustice; 8. Dósha,* that is “sinful error,” and this is subdivided into three parts, viz.: Rága, and this is “sensual lust;” Dvèsha, that is, “hate, enmity;” Muha,* and this is “gross ignorance;” 9. the ninth of the twelve subdivi­sions is Prétyabháva,* which is “the reproduction either of the tree from the seed, or of the animal from the sperma; 10. Phal,* or “the good con­sequence of the good, or the bad consequence of the bad,” which means “retribution;” 11. Dukh,* or “pain;” and 12. Apavarga,* that is, “delight,” or the satisfaction of truth, from which they derive emancipation, or mukt, in the language of their learned men. Whoever is in full possession of it banishes far from himself twenty-one maladies which they enumerate, namely: 1. Saríra,* or “the body;” 2. Shadindriya,* that is, “the six senses,” five of which are exterior, and the sixth is, according to the Hindus, the interior sense, except which they know of no other; they say, the mind is the lord of the exterior senses; 3. Shad-darsa,* that is, “the six particular objects of the six senses;” so as seeing with the eye, hearing with the ear, smelling with the nose, tasting with the tongue, touching with the hand, and perceiving with the mind; he who sees is one, and that which is seen is another; so that there is a seeing eye and a seen object, whatever is seen, heard, smelled, tasted, touched, and impressed upon the mind, corresponds respectively to each of the six senses; and whatever is found by these six senses, or the six objects, are called Shad-darsas; these six, with the six former senses, and the saríra, or “body,” make thirteen; add to these six buddhaya, or “powers of comprehension;” further, sukhá, or “sensual delight;” and finally, dukh,* or “pain,” and you have the twenty-one affections before men­tioned.

THE THIRD of the sixteen parts of the Tarka is the sanśaya:* this consists in pondering whether a cer­tain object be such a thing or another, as when a person sees from a distance an object and is not cer­tain what it is, whether it be a mineral or a man.

THE FOURTH PART is the Prayójana,* that is, “motive,” which they explain thus: as when one by order goes to find something either good or bad.

THE FIFTH PART is the Drishtánta;* that is, “com­parison by way of illustration;” so when they compare a mountain and a kitchen, that is: the mountain contains fire, and so does the kitchen, and both indicate it by the smoke which they emit.

THE SIXTH PART is the Siddhanta;* and this is know­ing something with certainty.

THE SEVENTH PART is Avayava,* “dividing a subject into minute parts;” for instance, when they say:

“he mountain contains fire on account of smoke,” so is, in this question, the first part termed pra­tijnya , or “proposition,” the mountain contains fire; the second part, called hètu, or “cause, reason;” in this thesis is: on account of the smoke which it emits.

THE EIGHTH PART is Tarka,* that is, “arguing:” so when they say: “the mountain contains no fire,” it may be replied: “consequently it also emits no smoke.”

THE NINTH PART is Nirnéya;* which is to find the truth immediately.

THE TENTH is Váda,* or “discussion;” that is, to raise questions about God and the saints.

THE ELEVENTH is Jalpa;* that is, “wrangling;” when one, in the establishment of what is right, endeavors to conquer his adversary.

THE TWELTH PART is Vitandá;* which means that one pays no attention to his own position, but com­bats that of other persons.

THE THIRTEENTH PART is hètwàbhása;* or “fallacious argument;” so when one says: “sound is eter­nal;” because what may be seen by the eye is like the sky, and just as the sky is perceived by sight, so is sound the perception of the ear.

THE FOURTEENTH PART is Chala,* “deceit;” this is when one substitutes one meaning for another: so as the Persian word náu kambil* means “a new cover,” or “nine covers,” it may give occasion to equivocation.

THE FIFTEENTH PART is Játi* “futile argument;” and this may be applied to a lying purpose: so when one says that “sound is eternal,” because it is created, as is the sky; both are the works of a divinity; and whereas the sky is eternal, sound is everlasting.

THE SIXTEENTH PART is Nigraha,* or “subjugation;” that is, when one wishes to be a conqueror at the end of a dispute with another.

These are the sixteen parts of the Tarka.* The followers of this doctrine judge and affirm that, as this world is created, there must be a Creator; the mukt or “emancipation,” in their opinion means striving to approach the origin of beings, not uniting like the warp and the web, the threads of which, although near, are nevertheless separate from each other. This was related to me by the Imám Arastú, who was a chief of the learned and said to me that he had derived it from an old treatise upon logic, the precepts of which were without explana­tion, and to have bestowed on it that arrangement under which it now exists amongst the learned: he meant, probably, that the maxims are the same as those extracted from the Tarka. The same doctrine was taught in Greece: in confirmation of this, the Persians say, that the science of logic which was diffused among them was, with other sciences, translated into the language of Yonia and Rumi, by order of king Secander, the worshipper of science, in the time of his conquest, and sent to Rúmi.