Two good biographies of Muhammad the apostle have been already laid before English readers, one by Mr. (now Sir William) Muir in 1858, another by Syed Ameer Ali in 1891. Both of these works are equally useful and equally interesting, the former written from the Christian, the latter from the Muhammadan, point of view. The two supply much information about the great monotheist and reformer obtained from the Korân, and from the traditions and histories of Ibn Ishâk, Ibn Hishâm, Al Wâqidi and his secretary Muhammad Bin Saad, Tabari, Ibn Athir, Abul Feda, Mirkhond and others. As no complete translation of a life of the prophet by any of these authors has yet appeared in English, such would seem to be a suitable work for the Oriental Translation Fund, New Series.
As it happened, two complete translations were in my possession—the one translated from the Arabic by the late Mr. E. Rehatsek, and entitled ‘Biography of our Lord Muhammad, Apostle of Allah, according to the tradition of A’bd-ul-Malek Ibn Hishâm, obtained from Muhammad Ibn Ishâk’; the other translated by the same gentleman from the Persian of Mirkhond’s ‘Rauzat-us-safa.’ It was a question which of these should be published. As Ibn Hishâm had, however, been already translated into German by Dr. Weil, and as Mirkhond’s ‘Life of Muhammad’ had not been translated into any European language, it was considered advisable to commence with Mirkhond’s work, more especially as Part I. of this author’s voluminous history already formed the first two volumes of this series. The present Part II. will consist of three volumes, the first two of which will give the life of Muhammad, and the third the lives of his immediate successors, Abu Bakr, O’mar, O’thmân and A’li.
The translator has pointed out in his preface, and footnotes 5 and 21, that Muhammad himself never claimed any supernatural powers; that the attribution of miracles to the prophet is not warranted by the Korân; and that there is a space of seven hundred years between the two biographies mentioned in the preceding paragraph. But tradition, which grows with time as stories grow with repetition, has now heaped a mass of wonders upon the apostle’s head. The earliest life of this great man, written by Ibn Ishâk and Ibn Hishâm in a very detailed and sober manner, makes but slight mention of miracles. But the Muhammadan masses, like the masses everywhere, are averse to philosophy, and hunger after marvels. Their understandings seem attainable only through their imagination and their senses. In a word, they prefer miracles to historical facts. And so it comes about that, the later the life of Muhammad, the greater the number of his miracles, and the more of them the better for the popularity of the work.
Of all the distinguished and illustrious men made known to us by history, the great monotheist Muhammad, the son of A’bdullah, the son of A’bd-ul-Muttalleb, is one of the most famous. He has, moreover, this great advantage over his predecessors, such as Moses, Zoroaster, Buddha, and Jesus, that the dates connected with him have never been disputed, and that there are complete details of his life from the cradle to the grave. And, indeed, it may be said that there are more than details about him. The great traditionist Al-Bokhâri, whose collection of traditions of the Muhammadan religion holds the first place both as regards authority and correctness, selected seven thousand two hundred and seventy-five of the most authentic out of ten thousand, all of which he regarded as being true, having rejected two hundred thousand as false. His book is held in the highest admiration, and considered both in spiritual and temporal matters as next in authority to the Korân. He was born A.D. 810, and died 870.
As a monotheist, Muhammad always protested against the Trinity established by the Councils of Nice and Constantinople, A.D. 325 and 381. Though always freely admitting the claims of Jesus to be one of the greatest prophets, he called him always the son of Mary, saying: ‘Verily Jesus the son of Mary is the apostle of God, and His Word, which he conveyed into Mary, and a spirit proceeding from Himself. Believe therefore in God, and His apostles, and say not, There are three Gods; forbear this; it will be better for you. God is only one God. Far be it from His glory that He should have a son! unto Him beloneth whatsoever is in heaven and on earth; and God is a sufficient Protector’ (Korân, ch. iv. 169).
As a reformer, Muhammad preached against female infanticide and blood-vengeance, common practices among the Arabs at that period; also against idolatry, usury, gambling, drinking, and cruelty to animals. ‘Fear God with regard to animals,’ he said; ‘ride them when they are fit to be ridden, and get off when they are tired. Verily there are rewards for our doing good to dumb animals, and giving them water to drink.’ He improved the legal status of women, and advocated kindness to them, and strongly urged that slaves should be treated in the most considerate and humane manner.
On the subject of charity he was most explicit, and enjoins it in many passages of his Korân. In fact, it may be truly said that every kind of reform was promulged, and had Muhammad lived in our times he would have taken an active part in nearly all the societies now existing in London and elsewhere for the amelioration of the human race. He would, moreover, have done an immense deal for the cause of total abstinence and temperance generally.
It is highly probable that when Muhammad first began his public exhortations he had a strong idea of bringing not only the Arabs, but also the Jews and Christians, into his fold, and establishing one faith on the basis of one God, Almighty, Eternal, Merciful, Compassionate. It was on this account, perhaps, that he introduced into certain Surahs, or chapters, of the Korân a good deal of matter connected with our Old and New Testaments. Indeed, he went so far as to state that his advent had been foretold in the Evangel or Gospel. He particularly mentioned Abraham as the Father of the Faith, and acknowledged that there had already existed many prophets, apostles, and messengers. He quoted nine of these last as special messengers, viz., Noah, Abraham, Jacob, Joseph, Moses, Job, David, Jesus the son of Mary, and himself. To five of these he gave special titles. Noah was the preacher of God, Abraham the friend of God, Moses the converser with God, Jesus the spirit of God, and he himself the apostle or messenger of God. But of the nine above mentioned, four only, viz., Moses, David, Jesus, and Muhammad, held the highest rank as prophet-apostles.
It is to be regretted that detailed and reliable biographies of all these prophets* have not come down to us similar to the one contained in the following pages. Nothing more is now likely to be known about them than is known already, and the dates of some of them can only be fixed as belonging to prehistoric times. Of Muhammad himself, however, it may be said that had he not in A.D. 595 married a wealthy widow, it is probable that he would not have had the time or leisure to pursue the studies and meditations which led to the promulgation of his mission in A.D. 610. ‘There can be no doubt that by this time he had acquired, as well through his own observation and inquiry, as through intimate converse with Warakah (reputed the most learned Arab of the age), considerable acquaintance with the dogmas of Judaism and Christianity; that he had some knowledge of certain books of our Old Testament, of the Talmud, and the Gospels; that he was thoroughly versed in Arab legendary lore, and that, being gifted with a ready flow of speech, an ardent imagination, together with a bold and enterprising spirit, he was well equipped for carrying out that grand social and religious revolution among his countrymen which he contemplated.’
The most important event in his career was the departure from Mekkah to Madinah, due in the first instance, probably, to the war between the Awus and the Khazraj tribes, in which the latter were defeated. Their chiefs came to Mekkah to ask assistance from the Qoraish, which was refused; but hearing about Muhammad, they interviewed him before their departure, and this interview led to the subsequent two meetings at A’kâbah, and the sending of Mossa’b Bin Omayrah to propound the Korân at Madinah, and prepare the way for the arrival of Muhammad himself and his followers, which took place in A.D. 622.
The events which happened in Mekkah from A.D. 610 to 622 are fully described in this work, but his mission during that period was not successful. At Madinah, however, everything changed. Muhammad was received with acclamation, became a sort of pope-king, and for the rest of his life (i.e., till 632) was engaged in military expeditions, diplomatic arrangements, spiritual instruction, and social legislation. He changed the Kiblah from Jerusalem to Mekkah, appointed Friday as the Moslem Sunday, and adopted the call to prayers instead of the Jewish trumpet or Christian bell. He also seems to have given up the idea of bringing the Jews and Christians into his fold, and arranged his religion so as to suit the Arabs, in accordance with many of their old customs. At the same time, however, he seems to have borrowed from the Magians and Jews some of their customs, as ably described in the eight sections of the preliminary discourse of Sale’s translation of the Korân.
A perusal of these two volumes (now translated for the first time) will give a good idea of the surroundings of Muhammad, of the life he led, and of the manners and customs of the Arabs of his time. Much information is also given of how, when and where many verses of the Korân were first revealed and promulgated; and, above all, it is evident that his intelligence department was excessively good. He always seems to have received early intimation of everything that was going on around him, and on several occasions took advantage of the same for the benefit of himself and his cause.
The intelligent reader, to whom Mirkhond so frequently appeals in these pages, and to whom this work is respectfully dedicated, will perceive that facts and fiction, or rather accurate history and tradition, are mixed up and blended together in such a way that it is difficult to separate the one from the other. In this he must exercise his own judgment as to probabilities, and he would also be much assisted by a perusal of Sir William Muir’s ‘Life of Muhammad,’ in which correct historical data fill the body of the work, while many of the traditions are given in the footnotes.
Shorn of all stories and traditions, the dates of the principal events of Muhammad’s life may be chronologically arranged as follows:
His birth at Mekkah, A.D. 570, his father having died some months previously.
His christening by the name of Muhammad—i.e., the Praised One.
His bringing up in the desert of the Bani Sa’ad by a Bedouin nurse named Halimah, the wife of Hârith, for five years.
His mother, Aminah, took him, aged six, to Madinah to present him to his maternal relations there. She died on the return journey, A.D. 576.
Under the guardianship of his grandfather, A’bd-ul-Muttalleb (who loved him dearly), for two years—from six to eight, when A’bd-ul-Muttalleb died, A.D. 578.
Under the guardianship of his uncle, Abu Tâleb, the uterine brother of his father Abdullah.
When about twelve years of age Muhammad accompanied his uncle, Abu Tâleb, into Syria on a mercantile expedition. His first visit to that country, and his experiences there, A.D. 582.
His presence during the sacrilegious war at a battle between certain tribes at or near Okâtz.
His attendance at sundry preachings and poetical and eloquent recitations at Okâtz, where it is said he imbibed the first lessons of the art of poetry and the power of rhetoric, and also acquired certain religious sentiments.
His life as a shepherd in the neighbourhood of Mekkah.
His acquisition of the title of Al-Amin, or the Trustworthy.
Abu Tâleb recommends him to seek employment, and mentions his name to Khodaijah.
His second visit to Syria, when twenty-five years old (A.D. 595), on a mercantile expedition as agent to the widow Khodaijah, and his acquisition of religious impressions there.
His successful business, and his marriage (A.D. 595) on his return to Khodaijah his first wife, fifteen years his senior in age, and by whom he had six children, two of whom died very young.
The rebuilding of the Ka’bah in A.D. 605, in which Muhammad accidentally takes a prominent part. Adopts his cousin, A’li Bin Abu Tâleb, and his slave, Zaid Bin Hâreth.
His solitary contemplations and studies from the age of twenty-five to forty at Mekkah, and at the cave on Mount Hira, near Mekkah.
His yearnings after religious truth, and his first poetic productions.
His mental depressions.
His first inspirations from the angel Gabriel, A.D. 610.
His account of his visions to his wife, who became the first convert to Al-Islam, the creed of Muhammad.
His next converts were A’li Murtadza—i.e., the Select, his adopted son and cousin; Zaid B. Hâreth, also an adopted son; and A’bdullah Bin O’thmân Abu Kahafa, one of the most worthy and influential men of Mekkah, and afterwards called Abu Bakr, or ‘The Father of the Virgin,’ ‘The Companion of the Cave,’ ‘The Second of the Two,’ ‘Ssiddiq, or the Veracious One,’ etc., and who eventually became the first Khalifah, or Successor.
Other conversions followed—viz., Sa’ad B. Abu Woqqâss, the nephew of Aminah; Zobeir B. Al-Awam, the nephew of Khodaijah, and Muhammad’s cousin; Tolhah B. Abdullah; Othmân B. O’ffan, surnamed ‘Dhu-n-nûrin,’ or ‘Endued with two Lights,’ the third Khalifah or Successor after Abu Bakr and O’mar, and who first married Rukya, and on her death Omm Kalthûm, both daughters of Muhammad; Abd-ur-rahman B. Awuf, and several more.
His assumption of the title of Apostle of God and the commencement of his mission, A.D. 610.
His frequent revelations for three years, and his public preaching to the Koraish, who would not listen to him, but looked on him as a half-witted poet.
His denouncement of idolatry, and the consequent persecutions of himself and his followers by the Koraish.
Conversions in the house of Arcam, afterwards styled the house of Islâm, A.D. 614.
The first emigration to Abyssinia of some of his followers by his advice, A.D. 615, and their speedy return.
The lapse of Muhammad and his idolatrous concession, but afterwards disowned and disavowed.
The second emigration to Abyssinia, A.D. 615-16.
Abu Tâleb refuses to abandon the protection of Muhammad, though urged by the Koraish to leave him.
The conversion of Hamzah B. A’bd-ul-Muttalleb, and of O’mar B. Al-Khattâb, surnamed Farûq the Discerner, and of thirty-nine adherents of the latter—a great event, A.D. 615-16.
The Koraish try to come to terms with Muhammad, but fail.
The prohibition of all intercourse with Muhammad and his followers by order of the Koraish, and a general persecution.
The excommunication of Muhammad and of the descendants of Hâshem and A’bd-ul-Muttalleb, which lasted for three years. They retired to the Shi’b of Abu Tâleb, where they suffered much privation, A.D. 617 to 619-20.
By the sympathies of some of the Koraish, and from the discovery that the document of excommunication had been destroyed by insects, they were all released from the Shi’b, A.D. 619-20.
The death of his first wife, Khodaijah, in December, A.D. 619, and of his uncle, Abu Tâleb, in January, A.D. 620.
His critical position. He seeks an asylum at Tâif, January and February, A.D. 620, but not being well received, returns to Mekkah, remaining there in comparative retirement.
His marriage, A.D. 620, to his second wife, Sowdah Bint Zamaah, and widow of Sakran, and his betrothal to A’aishah, the daughter of Abu Bakr, then only eight years old.
The first meeting at the Pilgrimage with certain chiefs of the Khazraj tribe, who, having been defeated by the Awus tribe, had come from Madinah to Mekkah, to see if the Koraish would assist them; but this being refused they interviewed Muhammad, who expounded his views, April, A.D. 620.
The above led to the conference at A’kâbah, a hill on the north side of Mekkah, with the men of certain tribes resident at Yathreb (Madinah), who took an oath to be faithful to Muhammad and his religion. This is called ‘the first pledge of A’kâbah,’ April, A.D. 621.
The despatch of Mossa’b B. Omayrah, a Mekkan disciple, to Yathreb, for the purpose of giving instruction in the Korân, and the rites of the new religion, also to ascertain how things looked there, and to prepare the way for the arrival of Muhammad and his companions.
The night of the ladder, or the miraculous journey first from Mekkah to Jerusalem upon the beast named Borâk, and then the ascent from Jerusalem to the seven heavens under the guidance of Gabriel, and what he saw there. Apparently a dream or vision, A.D. 621.
Second meeting at A’kâbah, called ‘the second pledge of A’kâbah,’ speeches made and engagements ratified, March, A.D. 622.
Distrust of the Koraish. Proposal to kill Muhammad, who had advised his followers to flee to Yathreb, April and May, A.D. 622.
In June, A.D. 622, Muhammad himself secretly leaves Mekkah with Abu Bakr. They first go to the cave Thor, about three miles to the south of Mekkah, and reach Yathreb (henceforward to be called Al-Madinah) a few days afterwards.
On his way there, at Koba, a village two miles to the south of Madinah, he laid the foundation of a mosque called ‘The fear of God.’ This was the first temple raised by Islâm.
Enthusiastic reception at Madinah; a charter drawn up, and Muhammad assumes the reins of both temporal and spiritual authority.
His family arrives from Mekkah.
EVENTS OF THE FIRST YEAR OF THE HEGIRA, OR FLIGHT FROM MEKKAH (FROM JULY 16, A.D. 622, TO JULY 4, A.D. 623).
Muhammad completes his house and mosque at Madinah and draws up a bond of union between the Anssârs, or auxiliaries of Madinah, and the Mohâjers, or refugees from Mekkah.
Sickness of many of the refugees owing to the insalubrity of the climate of Madinah.
His covenant with certain Jewish tribes to maintain a strict neutrality on both sides.
The marriage with his third wife A’aishah consummated, January, A.D. 623.
Friday appointed as the day for public service in the mosque; the call to prayer established, and some minor expeditions after Mekkan caravans.
The Kiblah, or place to which the face was turned in prayer, changed from Jerusalem to Mekkah; the fast of Ramadzân, and the tithe or poor rate instituted.
Commencement of hostilities with the people of Mekkah, the first blood shed, and the first booty taken by the Moslems.
Several minor expeditions.
Marriage of his daughter Fattimah to Ali B. Abu Tâleb, his adopted son and cousin.
Battle of Bedr, a victory, January, A.D. 624.
A Surah, or chapter, issued about ‘The Spoils,’ how to be divided, which now forms chapter viii. of the Korân.
Death of Rukya, daughter of Muhammad, who had been married to O’thmân Bin O’ffan.
Assassination of O’ssma the Jewess and of Abu Afak.
Commencement of disputes with the Jews, and the exile of the Bani Qaynuqaa’, a Jewish tribe settled near Madinah, to Syria, February, A.D. 624.
The Ghazwah, or expedition of Sawyq.
Various minor expeditions.
Murder of K’ab Bin Ashraf.
Some more expeditions.
Marriage of Muhammad to Hafssah, the daughter of O’mar, on the death of her husband Khoneis—his fourth wife, November, A.D. 624.
Defeat at Ohod, January, A.D. 625.
Further military expeditions.
Calamities at Rajya’ and Bara Moa’wiah.
Assassination of Sofyân B. Khâled.
Ghazwah of the Bani-Natzyr, a Jewish tribe residing near Madinah, and their exile.
Muhammad marries a fifth wife, Zainab, the daughter of Khodhaimah, and widow of his cousin O’baida??, who had been killed at Bedr.
Further hostilities with Arab tribes.
He marries his sixth wife, Omm Salmah, the widow of Abu Salmah, who died of a wound received at Ohod, February, 626.
More expeditions.
Muhammad marries his seventh wife, Zainab, the daughter of Jahsh and wife of Zaid Bin Hâreth, who divorced her that she might marry the prophet, Zaid being his freedman and adopted son, 626.
Ghazwah of Rabyi’, also called Ghazwah of the Bani Mossttalaq.
Muhammad marries his eighth wife, Jarirah, daughter of Hareth B. Abu Dharâr, December, 626.
A’aishah, the favourite wife, and the daughter of Abu Bakr, accused of adultery, but eventually acquitted by a Divine revelation.
Siege of Madinah, or War of the Ditch, or War of the Confederates, February and March, 627.
Expedition against, and massacre of, the Bani Qoryttah, a Jewish tribe near Madinah, March, 627.
Several minor expeditions.
Murder of Abu Râfi’, December, 627.
An intended pilgrimage to Mekkah, but to this the Koraish object, and Muhammad and his followers do not go farther than Hodaybiah, March, 628. The Pledge or Covenant of the Tree.
A truce and a treaty made with the Koraish for ten years, and permission given to Muhammad to visit Mekkah the next year for three days only, March, 628.
After the treaty the Bani Khozaa’h joined the prophet, and the Bani Bakr the Korâish.
Letters sent by Muhammad under his new seal to foreign sovereigns and princes inviting them to embrace Islâm.
Mary, the Coptic maid, sent to him by Maqôqush, the Governor of Alexandria, in reply to his letter, is taken on as a concubine.
Expedition against the Jews of Khaiber, and its complete success, August, 628.
His marriage to the ninth wife, Ssofyah, the wife of Kunânah, who was executed after the victory at Khaiber, August, 628. He partakes of a poisoned kid dressed and offered to him by a woman named Zainab.
His marriage with Omm Habiba, widow of O’baidallah and daughter of Abu Sofyân—the tenth wife, October, 628.
Several small expeditions.
Despatch of further letters to foreign potentates and princes.
His pilgrimage to Mekkah for three days as previously stipulated, and known as ‘The solemn visit of the fulfilment,’ or ‘Pilgrimage by Divine predestination,’ February, 629.
His marriage with Maymûnah, the sister-in-law of his uncle Abbas—the eleventh and last wife.
Further important conversions at Mekkah, such as Othmân Bin Ttolhah, the guardian of the Ka’bah; Amru or Amr B. Al-Aasi, a man renowned for sagacity, and who, during the Khalifate of O’mar, conquered Egypt; and Khaled Bin Wolyd, whose exploits obtained for him the title of ‘The Sword of God.’ This last was the most talented general of the Moslems.
Several military excursions.
Battle at Mowtah with certain Syrian tribes subject to the Roman authorities, September, 629. A defeat, but Muhammad was not there.
Further military expeditions.
Various tribes tender their submission.
Expedition against Mekkah, and its complete success. Destruction of pictures, images, and idols at Mekkah and the surrounding districts, January, 630.
Expedition against the Bani Thaqif at Tâif, and their allies the Bani Hoâzân, and the battle of Honain, February, 630.
Siege of Tâif, and its abandonment, followed by the submission of Malik, the chief of the Bani Hoâzân, and the greater part of his tribe, March, 630.
Muhammad performs the lesser pilgrimage, and returns to Madinah.
The birth of a son by his Coptic slave and concubine Mary, April, 630. The boy, named Ebrâhim, lived over a year, and died June or July, 631.
Quarrel with his legitimate wives about Mary the Coptic slave, whom he freed after the birth of the child. Quarrel settled after a month.
Collectors deputed to collect the tithes from the various tribes, April, 630.
Some minor expeditions.
Conversion of the poet K’ab, the son of Zoheir, author of the famous ‘Poem of the Mantle.’
Deputations from various Arab and Christian tribes.
Campaign of Tabuk, which ended without fighting, and the submission of many tribes, October to December, 630.
Deputation from Tâif, and submission of the tribe and destruction of their idols, December, 630.
Pilgrimage of Abu Bakr and A’li to Mekkah, with certain instructions from Muhammad, who did not go himself, March, 631.
More deputations and embassies from Arab and Christian tribes.
Further deputations from, and submission of, various tribes.
Expedition of A’li to Yemen, December, 631.
Muhammad’s solemn and greater pilgrimage to Mekkah, March, 632.
His speeches at this pilgrimage, known in Muhammadan history as ‘The pilgrimage of the announcement,’ or ‘The pilgrimage of Islam,’ or ‘The farewell pilgrimage.’ His establishment of the lunar year, his farewell addresses, and his return to Madinah.
The three revolts—one headed by Tulaihah Bin Khuwailid, a famous warrior of Najd; one by Moseylamah, the liar or false prophet; and one by Al-Aswad, all of which were eventually completely crushed after Muhammad’s death by Abu Bakr and his generals.
Another expedition to Syria projected.
Indisposition of Muhammad.
His health becomes worse; his retirement to A’aishah’s apartment; his final discourses.
Abu Bakr appointed to lead the public prayers; Muhammad’s last appearance in the mosque at Madinah; his death and burial, June, A.D. 632.
The intelligent reader will also perceive that in this work many of the proper names are curiously spelt. It will be found that i and y, s and ss, t and tt, z, dz, and dh are often indiscriminately used in the same names; while the vowels a, e, o and u sometimes vary in them. Such discrepancies are very apparent, but I thought it best to follow the translator’s transliteration throughout. A transliteration of my own might have been also open to many objections, though the names would always have been spelt in the same way.
As Mr. Rehatsek died in December, 1891, neither this matter nor any proof-sheets could be submitted to him. It is probable that the lithographed copy of the work from which he made his translation contained many errors, and as he appears to have accurately and faithfully rendered into English what was before him, this may account for some of the mistakes. It is well known that before most Oriental works can be properly translated the texts of them should be collated with several copies of the same, a correct text then prepared, and after that the translation. Had this course been followed, it is doubtful if the present work would ever have appeared in English. And as it is on the whole both valuable and interesting, it seemed better to print it with the imperfections rather than to leave it for ever in manuscript.
The next volume, containing the lives of Abu Bakr, O’mar, O’thmân, and A’li, the immediate successors of Muhammad, will be published in 1894.
F. F. ARBUTHNOT.
18, PARK LANE,
LONDON, W.