Verses:

Love subdues even a lion, And makes him unreasonable; At times friendship he will show, At others he is a defiant foe.

Although Falûs offered gold, silver, jewels, and fine clothes to that virtuous lady, and tried various stratagems to initiate an amorous intrigue, her innocence and piety baffled all his attempts. At last he conceived the idea to obtain forcible possession of her by assassinating Filqûs and usurping his kingdom. He watched a long time for an opportunity to execute his unhallowed design, till one day Filqûs despatched an officer with a detachment of warriors to subdue the son of King Fillâtûs, who had rebelled, and sent also Eskandar with troops for the purpose of conquer­ing the city of Berâqûs. When Falûs had ascertained that the army was divided, and that the long-hoped-for oppor­tunity was at hand, he assembled a number of malcontents, with whom he attacked Filqûs so vehemently that when the remainder of the army and the inhabitants of the city came to his aid they found him half killed when they liberated him. Eskandar happened to return on the very day of the attack, and being informed of what had taken place, he hastened to the royal mansion, where he observed Falûs in the act of taking possession of his mother; for fear, however, of wounding her he abstained from making use of his sword. She then exclaimed: ‘If I am the cause of your wavering, know that I am no longer caring for my life, and the sooner you cut down this scoundrel the better.’ Accordingly Eskandar nearly killed him with one blow of his scimitar. After that he hastened to the couch of his father, the sun of whose life he found nearly setting, and said: ‘Arise and exterminate your enemy with this sword.’ Filqûs complied, and killed Falûs with his own hand. Then Filqûs convoked the chiefs of the people and made them inaugurate Eskandar as their king. He likewise called for Aristo [Aristoteles], into whose hands he placed those of Eskandar, and recommended him to advise him; after that he bade farewell to this perishable world.

When Eskandar had terminated the duties of interment and mourning, he rose in the select assembly, and spoke as follows: ‘Know ye, O men, that your king, like his pre­decessors, has departed this life. I am one of yourselves, and have no power over you. I shall aid you in every­thing you may undertake, and I shall subordinate my wishes to yours. Consider me as your adviser, and elect someone to be your governor who will obey the Creator most, who will be the most kind to the people, and who will be most merciful to the poor and needy; one who will distribute among you with equity the spoils you gain of war, one who will not be seduced by his passions from the duties he owes to his people; one from whose wicked­ness you need apprehend nothing, and from whose good­ness you may hope much.’ This speech, however, was extremely long, and is recorded in books on practical philosophy.

As those who were present in the assembly had heard words from Eskandar the like of which fell from no other king, they were astonished, and replied as follows: ‘We have heard thy pleasant words, and we shall act according to the advice thou hast given. We entrust the affairs of the state and of the government to thy far-seeing intellect, and we hope thou wilt govern us during many long years with much sagacity and prosperity; for we know of no man more worthy to govern and to protect us than thy­self.’ Hereon they arose, and unanimously proclaimed him their king. Eskandar thanked them, sent circulars to all parts of the country inviting all men to acknowledge the unity of God the Most High, and to abstain from idolatry. He also assembled the army, made new appoint­ments therein, regulated the pay, and distributed gifts. When the people saw how he protected the needy, and punished the wicked who transgressed the laws of God, and was in all his dealings righteous, beyond their utmost expectations, they perceived that he would become a great monarch.

As Dârâ, the Emperor of Persia, had been in the habit of levying a yearly tribute of one thousand golden eggs from the father of Eskandar, he now sent ambassadors to receive the customary tax; but Eskandar sent back the answer that the hen which was laying those eggs had died long ago. Although there were at that time many independent kings in Greece, Eskandar managed by kind­ness and firmness to bring them all under his own control. After that he marched with his victorious banners to the Maghrab [Northern Africa, west of Egypt], the whole of which he subjugated, and then returned to his own country. After that he marched with his glorious army to Egypt, where he built an exceedingly high lighthouse on the shores of the green sea [Mediterranean] in the seventh year of his reign. From that country he marched to Syria, and thence to Armenia. These news made the treacherous Dârâ uneasy, and he sent a mandate to the inhabitants of Fars [a province of Persia] to the following effect: ‘The information has reached his majesty that a certain rebel has collected a number of thieves from all sides. Accord­ingly you are ordered to capture them with their arms and provisions, and to throw all into the sea, but to send their commander to the imperial court. As the said thief is only a despicable Greek boy, you will have no difficulty in catching him; but if you delay this affair or fail therein, you will not be excused.’ Meanwhile Eskandar departed from Armenia, and established his camp on the shores of the Sea of Astokhus [Azof?], which circumstance still more troubled Dârâ, so that he indited the following letter to Eskandar: ‘From Dârâ, the king of kings in this world, who is shining with the sun, upon the head of Eskandar!’ But after [this preamble]: ‘Be aware that the King of Heaven has granted me dominion over the inhabited world, and has bestowed on me great majesty and power, together with numerous armies! It has been brought to my notice that thou hast gathered around thee a crowd of brigands and thieves, and hast on the strength of their numbers conceived the ambitious hope of subjugating my empire, and of extirpating the reigning dynasty. Such foolish attempts tally well with the stupidity of the Greeks. On the receipt of this letter thou art to repent of thy boldness, and to retrace thy steps. Do not give way to fond imaginations of power and conquest based on thy present wicked attempt; for thou art not yet enrolled in the com­pany of those who are worthy to be addressed or reasoned with by us! Behold, I have sent thee a box full of gold, and a load of sesame grain, that thou mayest form an idea of the wealth and of the army I command. I send thee also a ball to play with, according to thy boyish age, of which it will remind thee; and a scourge to serve for your chastisement.’

When Eskandar had perused and understood the con­tents of this letter, he summoned the ambassadors to his presence, and called for the executioner to slay them, although he was in reality not inclined to deprive them of their lives. The envoys exclaimed: ‘O king, wilt thou disgrace ambassadors in a manner unheard of in the times of former sovereigns?’ But Zulqarneen replied: ‘Blame your own master, who calls me a thief, and not a king, and I shall act like a thief towards you.’ They continued: ‘Dârâ has neither known nor seen thee, whereas we have had the honour to wait on thee, and have seen thy mag­nanimity. Have mercy on us, and spare our lives, that we may inform Dârâ of thy wisdom and humanity.’ Eskandar replied: ‘As you have humbled yourselves, and have appealed to my kindness, I shall pardon you.’ Accord­ingly he ordered the envoys to be released, and treated them kindly, dismissing them with the following letter to Dârâ: ‘From Eskandar to him who pretends to be the king of kings, feared by the hosts of heaven and the denizens of the earth!’ But after [this preamble]: ‘How could such be the case with one who dreads a weak man like Eskandar? Knowest thou not that God bestoweth victory on whom He willest? and that whenever a feeble mortal pretends to be a god, and to overcome the armies of heaven, the Almighty lowers His kingdom to the brink of destruction? How can a mortal, who will die and rot, and will leave his possessions to others, lay claim to be the Deity? I have decided to fight thee, and am marching against thee! I pray to God to grant me the victory, and I worship Him! The letter which thou hast sent me is a record of thy pride, and the gold, with the sesame and the ball and the scourge, I interpret as auspicious signs of success for myself. As for the scourge, it implies that I shall chastise you, that I shall become your king, your master, and your high-priest. The ball indicates that I shall subjugate the whole earth, and the gold means that all thy treasures will fall into my possession. As for sesame, it is very plentiful, and its intrinsic nourishing qualities are neither good nor bad. I send thee a box of mustard-seed, that thou mayest taste its bitterness and know my bravery. Thy pride has deceived thee, but my trust is in God. Farewell.’

This letter Eskandar handed to the ambassadors, whom he presented with the gold which Dârâ had sent him. After dismissing them, Eskandar marched to Azarbaijân, where he put to flight the Governor of Dârâ, and most of his army to the sword. Then he conquered Gaillân, on which occasion he heard that his mother was sick; accord­ingly he departed to Macedonia, but again returned after her recovery. On that occasion he marched against a certain town belonging to Dârâ, but as the inhabitants had closed the gates, he set fire to the place, whereon they cried for mercy, and having been promised lenient treat­ment, they came out with all kinds of fruits and provisions, which they presented to Eskandar. Then he marched to Fârs, where Dârâ met him with an army more numerous than the leaves of trees. The centre of Eskandar’s army consisted of warriors dressed in coats of mail, and when both armies met, they resembled the waves of the Indian Ocean, or two mountains of steel. The air became darkened by the clouds which the soldiers raised, and the clanking of trumpets resembled an earthquake, so that the people imagined the heavens were being rent asunder. The Greek champions rushed to the attack with the shout: ‘Aid comes from Allah, and victory is at hand!’* The fire of the battle commenced to rage, and the scimitars, which resembled lightning, rained blood. The fight lasted from noon till sunset, at which time Dârâ, perceiving that his best generals had been slain, and his army routed, likewise fled with his staff of courtiers, and left the count­less treasures with the stores of war, wherewith he had threatened his antagonist, in the possession of Eskandar. Dârâ took the lead in the flight across a frozen river, and was followed by the remnant of his army; but the ice soon gave way, and great numbers of it perished in the floods. When Dârâ arrived in his capital, he decided that it would be best to propitiate his antagonist, as he was cognizant of the humane disposition of Eskandar. Accordingly he indited a letter, offering to ransom his wife, son, and daughters from Eskandar with all the treasures his ancestors had left him. After Eskandar had perused the letter, he marched towards Dârâ, who, nevertheless, sought refuge with Fûr [Porus], the King of India, who aided him with several thousands of brave warriors, consisting both of infantry and of cavalry, and in comparison to the battle which now ensued, the first had been, as it were, but a child’s play. On this occasion two of Dârâ’s courtiers were led astray by the baseness of their nature, and by their faithlessness, to conceive the idea of killing their master, on the supposition that they would thereby ingratiate themselves with Eskandar. But Dârâ, who had become aware of their design, reproached them with their ingrati­tude, and said: ‘Be aware that such a deed will profit you nothing with Eskandar, because, although kings may be at enmity with each other, they never fail to slay regi­cides.’ The two miscreants, however, remained deaf to all entreaties, and brought down with their swords Dârâ from the horse which he was riding, Before the King of Persia had expired, Eskandar happened to arrive, and alighting from his charger, looked at the sovereign who had once worn a diadem, wiped the dust from his face, took his head on his own knees, wept, and spoke as follows: ‘O king, who lovest me not, and art proud, I swear by the God of heaven and earth that I shall reinstate thee into thy king­dom, and restore to thee all thy treasures. Arise and forget what is past. Do not complain of thy misfortunes, because kings ought in their troubles to be more patient than other men. Inform me who were the perpetrators of this deed, that I may punish them.’ Dârâ kissed the hand of Eskandar, placed it on his face, moaned, and said: ‘O Zulqarneen, yield by no means to the suggestions of pride and tyranny, neither be deceived by the pomp of royalty, since thou hast seen what has become of me. Trust not in prosperity, and be aware of the treachery of this world, which is ever changing. I beseech thee to treat my mother as if she were thy own, my wife as if she were thy sister, and to marry my daughter Roushang.’ Eskandar complied with these requests, and after a few minutes Dârâ expired. Zulqarneen then ordered the corpse to be washed with musk and amber, to be dressed in gold and silver embroidered garments, and to be placed in a sarcophagus, adorned with precious stones and jewels. The corpse was accompanied to the Dukhmâ,* as the last resting-place, by an escort of ten thousand men with drawn swords in front of the coffin, with as many in the rear, on the right, and on the left side of it, Eskandar himself assisting in the pro­cession with the princes and grandees of Persia.

After the termination of the funeral ceremony, Eskandar caused the two murderers of Dârâ to be crucified on two crosses opposite to the Dukhmâ, and ordered his whole army to march in single file between the two crosses. Then he married Roushang, and installed the brother of Dârâ over Fârs, appointing him to be the chief of the ninety-nine governors, who were surnamed the kings of the nations [Mulûk-ut-touâif]. By order of Eskandar, the books on medicine, astronomy and philosophy were trans­lated from the language of Persia into that of Greece, and conveyed to that country. He burnt the religious books of the Magi, and destroyed their fire-temples, removing the priests of that blameworthy religion.

Meanwhile the following letter arrived from his mother: ‘From Ruqiâ to the weak Eskandar, who has by the favour of God the Most High overcome his enemies and subjugated their country!’ After these words she wrote: ‘My son, abstain from vanity and tyranny, because these two qualities will bring thee down from heaven to earth. Be on thy guard from covetousness and indulgence in passions, because they lead to perdition. Send all the spoils which have fallen into thy power in that country to me, with a swift courier.’ When Eskandar had perused this letter, he consulted his wise men on the important subject mentioned at the end of the letter; but when they all confessed their inability to explain it, and Eskandar ordered a list of places containing treasures to be drawn up, and sent it to Greece to his mother by a courier, they manifested their admiration at his acuteness, and praised him greatly.

About this time he built a great city near the river Jaihûn, and ordered persons from all regions to settle in that country, which he named Marjâlûs; but it is related that he founded also the cities of Hirat and Samarqand. After completing these affairs, he marched to India, through arduous passes and precipitous mountains, till he reached the capital of Fûr [Porus], the Indian, to whom he sent the following letter: ‘O ruler of the country of India, be aware that the Lord Most High — whose name be hallowed—has entrusted me with the duty of governing the inhabitants of the world, and has confided the reins of political and religious affairs to my management. He has exalted my power to the highest zenith of the spheres, and has caused me to trample under foot all who rebel against me. I hereby invite thee to worship the Creator of men and genii, and prohibit thee from paying homage to any other gods. Act up to this advice, and send to my camp the idols in whose adoration thou hast spent thy life and treasure, and be ready to pay tribute to me. Comply with these injunctions, or else I shall devastate thy country with fire and sword.’

When the letter of Zulqarneen arrived at the capital of Fûr, he received it with scorn, and sent back its bearer. Accordingly Eskandar prepared to attack Fûr, and taking refuge with the mercy of the forgiving sovereign, com­menced his march. Fûr hastened to meet him with his Indians, a great number of battle-elephants, and wild animals. When Eskandar perceived his antagonists, he was struck with confusion, and knew not how he should fight the Indians, considering that they had elephants and beasts of prey to aid them. He consulted his sages, and men of experience on this subject, but could elicit no advice from them. At last, however, he was divinely inspired to collect all his artisans, and to order them to construct twenty thousand hollow figures of iron, brass, and other metals, all of which they made in the shape of warriors, but filled their cavities with wood and naphtha. When Fûr made his attack, all these figures were put on fire, so that his elephants, leopards, tigers, and lions rushed against them, but getting entangled, took to flight, whereon the Greek soldiers despatched untold numbers of the antagonists of the religion with the sword, and prostrated them from their saddles to the ground, so that Fûr was compelled to retire within the fortifications of his city.

The next day countless multitudes arrived from the surrounding countries of Hindustân, so that he was again emboldened to sally out, and to try his chance in open battle. This contest lasted twenty days, and champions issued from both parties, who fought in single combat with sword and spear, killing and maiming each other in great numbers. When Eskandar saw that he had in this way lost many of his best warriors, he became depressed in mind, and sent the following message to Fûr: ‘What glory can a sovereign reap who daily jeopardizes the lives of many of his warriors, which he is able to spare, if he be only willing? If, therefore, thou art willing, we can make an end to this strife, without the interposition of armed forces, and will thereby for our common advantage save the lives of those unhappy men who are endangering them for our sakes.’ Fûr was amazed at this proposal [or, rather, challenge to a duel], because he was of a large and robust stature, whereas Eskandar was rather small and of a con­temptible aspect. He therefore gladly accepted the call, and hastened alone into the lists, like a furious lion. Eskandar galloped forward to meet him, and the two kings began their single combat. Whilst they were fighting together Fûr heard a terrible sound—which was in reality the summons for his departure from this world—in his rear, and whilst he turned his head in the direction of it, Eskandar made use of the opportunity, and lifting him out of the saddle with one stroke of the sword, sat down on his breast, and severed his proud head with the scimitar from his body. In consequence of this event, the lamentations of the Hindus became so extravagant that they rose to the uppermost firmament, and their exasperation so great that they resolved to die in battle. Eskandar, however, soon convinced them that after the death of their king it would be useless to contend with him, and that, as his disposition was very humane, they had nothing to fear from him. All the possessions and treasures of Fûr had fallen into the power of Eskandar, who liberally distributed gifts among all men, and ordered the corpse of Fûr to be buried with great honours.

After that Eskandar marched to the Brahmans, concern­ing the greatness of whose knowledge and abstinence from the vanities of this world he had heard much. When the Brahmans had been informed of the approach of Eskandar, they sent him the following letter: ‘If the cause of your majesty’s visiting us be a wish for riches, we inform you that we are all poor and destitute. Our food consists only of grass, and our garments of the skins of animals. But if you are in search of knowledge, of what use is all your pomp and circumstance?’ When Eskandar had perused this letter, he ordered the army to remain stationary, and proceeded with a few courtiers to pay a visit to the Brahmans. He found them to be poor and dwelling in mountain-caves, their wives and children being engaged in procuring herbs from the plains. He held many conversa­tions and disputations with the Brahmans on scientific and philosophical subjects, and conceived great esteem for them. He offered them as much treasure and property as they wanted, but they replied: ‘We want you to bestow on us only perpetual existence and eternal life.’ Eskandar replied: ‘To grant such a request is in the power of no man, and the prolongation of my own life not being in my power, that of another is still less so.’ The Brahmans con­tinued: ‘As your majesty is convinced that every pro­fession is subject to decline, and every prosperity must pass away, why have you undertaken to slay men, to devastate countries, and to collect treasures, all of which you must in course of time again abandon?’ Eskandar replied: ‘I am commanded by the Most High—whose name be glorified—to promulge the true religion and the straight way, to exterminate infidels, and to punish wicked men. Had I not been appointed to this mission by the Creator, I would not have left my home; but I am bound to execute His behests, until the time of my death arrives, when I shall depart from this world in the same manner in which I have entered it.’ After similar conversations, Eskandar bade farewell to the Brahmans, and returned to his camp.

In some chronicles it is recorded that after Zulqarneen had vanquished Fûr, he heard that at the other extremity of India there lived a king whose name was Kyd, a sovereign endowed with prudence, justice, and piety, whose realm was in a high state of culture, and subjects civilized. He was said to have governed his army and his subjects in such a manner as to have brought even their sexual and irascible passions under his control, and his age had exceeded nearly three hundred years. Eskandar despatched couriers to him with the following message: ‘When my ambassador reaches thee, sit not down if thou art standing; and if thou be on a journey, make haste, or else thou shalt feel my wrath, like many other countries of Hindustân.’ When the envoys arrived at the court of Kyd, he received them with great honours, and called Eskandar the king of kings whenever he had occasion to mention his name. With the returning ambassadors he despatched the follow­ing message to Eskandar: ‘I possess things not existing in the treasury of any king. I have a virgin of unparalleled beauty, a philosopher able to answer all questions, a physician incomparable in the art of maintaining health, and a goblet which always remains full, even if the whole world were to drink therefrom. All these I present to his majesty, with the request to excuse me from personal attendance on account of my age and weakness; but if it must be, I shall make my appearance at his court.’ After perusing this epistle, Eskandar was astonished at the rarities mentioned, and sent learned men to Kyd, to see whether the reality tallied with the statement contained therein. The philosophers departed, arriving in due time at the residence of Kyd, the Hindu sovereign, who received them kindly, and held on the third day a great festival, in which he caused the Greek scholars to sit at his right and the Hindus at his left hand. They carried on scientific discussions with each other, after the termination whereof the Greeks asked for the promised gifts, which Kyd readily delivered to them, together with many other presents of fine clothes and curiosities. On their arrival at the court of Eskandar, they brought him the above-mentioned gifts, and he admired first of all the great beauty of the lady; then he set about trying the philosopher as follows: He sent him a jug full of oil. Into this the philosopher looked, and after dropping many needles into it, sent it back to Eskandar. The latter then ordered the needles to be melted into a ball, which he despatched to the philosopher, who shaped it into a mirror, which having been brought to Eskandar, he threw it into a basin full of water, and despatched it to the sage, who thereon shaped the mirror into a cup, which he caused to swim in the basin, and sent it back to Eskandar, who in his turn filled the cup with earth, and despatched it to the sage. When the philosopher perceived the earth he wept, lamented, glanced up to the sky, manifested signs of grief and repentance, but at last beckoned to the messenger to take away the basin with the cup to Eskandar. Zulqarneen was much astonished, but communicated the mystery to no one.

The next day Eskandar assembled his court, and ordered the Hindu philosopher, with whom he had not yet had a personal interview, to be brought to his presence. He found the sage to be of a tall stature and robust constitu­tion, and conjectured that such qualities were not peculiar to philosophers, but nevertheless thought within himself that if, in conjunction with them, this individual was also endowed with acuteness of intellect and quickness of per­ception, he must be a great phenomenon of his time. The philosopher guessed the surmise of Eskandar, drew his finger around his countenance, and then placed it on his nose. When Zulqarneen asked for the meaning of this pan­tomime, the sage replied: ‘I have understood the thoughts of his majesty concerning my physical appearance, and have by my motions indicated that, in the same manner, as there is but one nose in a man’s countenance, so I am a paragon without an equal in the world.’

Eskandar: Tell me what I meant by the goblet of oil?

Philosopher: I understood that your majesty intended thereby to convey to me the message that your majesty’s mind is so filled with knowledge and wisdom as not to allow of any further increase, in the same manner as the goblet was incapable to hold any more of the liquid. But by dropping the needles into the oil, I indicated that your majesty might possibly add more to the treasures of knowledge accumulated in your mind, in the same manner as there was still room for the needles in the goblet full of oil.

Eskandar: What was the meaning of the ball?

Philosopher: By the ball your majesty intended to con­vey the following message: My heart is so fully engrossed with warlike and political affairs, that it is isolated from all other matters in the same manner as the rotundity and compactness of the ball, and is incapable of engaging in philosophical researches. By forming that ball into a mirror I indicated that, although iron is hard and compact, it may by careful treatment be made capable of receiving on its polished surface the images of visible objects.

Eskandar: Tell me the signification of my placing the mirror into the basin of water, and of the goblet you caused to float thereon?

Philosopher: I understood the sinking of the mirror in the water to mean that our lives terminate after a short time, and that much knowledge cannot be acquired during that brief season. By fabricating the cup I implied that, in the same manner as by skill a substance which sinks in the water may be made to float thereon, so also great acquisitions of knowledge may be gained in a short time by diligence and perseverance.

Eskandar: I filled the cup with earth, and sent it to you, but received no answer!

Philosopher: The fall of every kingdom must ensue in course of time; there is no permanent abode on earth for any created beings, all of whom must finally rejoin their mother-earth.

Eskandar: You have spoken the truth, and I consider the circumstance of having met you to be the greatest advantage I have obtained from my coming to the country of India.

After this conversation Zulqarneen honoured the philoso­pher by presenting him with costly dresses of honour and rare gifts, whereby he exalted him above all his contem­poraries and friends. Masu’di relates that this philosopher remained in attendance on Eskandar during his whole sojourn in India, and that on the departure of the latter he asked his majesty for a lock of hair, which request was graciously complied with.

It is related that Zulqarneen filled the [above-described wonderful] goblet with water, and caused everybody to drink therefrom without its contents being diminished. He also examined the physician, and received from him wonderful explanations concerning the art of healing, to such an extent that it would be impossible to record them.

In the Târikh-i-Hukmâ it is narrated that after his con­quest of India Eskandar departed, and marched to China, with the emperor of which country he waged a great war until he finally subjugated him. This new vassal thereon sent the following presents: ‘One thousand mauns of pure gold, one thousand pieces of white silk cloth, five thousand robes of gold brocade, one hundred swords with hilts, inlaid with precious stones, the sight of which amazed those who beheld them; one hundred horses that vied with the wind in celerity; one hundred saddles, embroidered with costly gems; one hundred heaps of pale amber, one thousand misqâls of musk, nine rattals of lignum-aloe, many vessels of porcelain, pictures and figures, which persons who once saw them would never dismiss from their hearts; skins of sables, beavers, and ermines, several thousands of each kind, together with many other things. These offer­ings the Emperor of China delivered with great apologies, and obtained in return a written treaty from Eskandar to guide the Chinese in their dealings. After terminating his expedition to China, Zulqarneen vanquished all the countries of the East, and regulated the taxes which they were to pay; and, lastly, having founded several cities in Turkestan, he hastened Westwards.