THE reason why Europeans generally obtain no correct perception of the religion and early history of the Muhammadans must chiefly be attributed to the means by which they become acquainted with them; namely, to books written from a European standpoint of civilization and religious view, in a manner not impartial, but generally offensive to Moslems, and therefore attributed by them to a spirit of infidelity, which taints, according to their opinion, more or less, the sentiments of all writers on these subjects who are not themselves Moslems. It is, of course, natural that European authors are biassed by their own associations, and Muhammadans by theirs. The latter have likewise been much influenced by the religious opinions which in most instances guided them, and made them partial in the composition of their early historical and religious works to such an extent that they neither sought nor used, but deliberately and obstinately rejected, all information not in conformity with the Qurân, which is, according to them, a revelation from God, and to differ therefrom makes any man an infidel. Hence the perusal of a work of this kind, and of very great authority among the professors of Islâm, composed by a celebrated Persian Muhammadan author on the principle of exclusion just alluded to, is calculated to impart to the reader a far superior and more accurate knowledge of what Moslems believe to be true than any book of European origin possibly could do.
It is certain that he who desires to obtain some knowledge of the genius of Islâm, and wishes to see with Moslem eyes, ought not to be satisfied with the perusal of books written by unbelievers in a spirit of unbelief, but must endeavour to gain access to information destined for Moslems, and enshrined in their own authors. A perception of this desideratum has resulted in the production of the work now before the reader.
Scriptural history among the professors of Islâm agrees in some respects with Biblical accounts, but is in others totally different, as will abundantly appear in this work. These points of contact and of discrepancy may also be ascertained in detail by anyone willing to collate the Christian with the Muhammadan standard of religion. The Qurân is the origin and source of all sacred and profane history among Moslems. It may, indeed, be explained and amplified by tradition, but on no account contradicted, under pain of incurring the stigma of infidelity; it is by all Muhammadans believed to be a divine revelation, but promulgated by a human being—Muhammad, the apostle of Allah. Apart from opinions about the divine element—there being already too many published on all sides of the question— something may be mentioned in this place about the human element in connection with the Christian doctrines alluded to in the Qurân. The prophet was on very familiar and good terms with Warakah Bin Nowfil, the Christian cousin of his first wife Khodayjah, who is on all hands admitted to have been a man of some learning and intellect. This individual Muhammad consulted after the first chapter of the Qurân (in the present order the ninety-sixth, ‘Congealed blood,’ etc.) had been revealed to him, and Warakah, struck more than ever by the character of Muhammad, with whom he had been associated often and intimately, predicted that he would become the prophet of the Arabs. This much we gather from Muhammadan authors. It is likewise certain that during the conciliatory policy followed by the prophet in the beginning of his career, his intercourse with both the Christians and the Jews was of a friendly nature,* although in course of time, when he had become powerful, he accused them of having falsified the Old and the New Testament.* The Muhammadans possess not only their own narratives about the principal persons mentioned in the Bible, but they also believe that the number of prophets* amounts to many thousands. They possess accounts of Abraham, of Moses, of David, of Joseph, and even of our Lord Jesus, as will be seen during the course of this work; but, as already observed, all are dealt with according to Muhammadan views, discarding Christian sources of information. Sharastani and others have given accounts of the various religions of the world, and among them also those of Christianity and Judaism. The elaborate and voluminous treatises of the Muhammadans on theology and tradition could not, however, altogether disregard the two religions which their prophet claims to have superseded by his own, and the following notice concerning the tenets of the Jews and Christians, translated from a small Arabic work of the fourteenth century, the original of which was published at Calcutta in the ‘Bibliotheca Indica,’ vol. vi., No. 21, 1849, will show the views generally entertained by Moslems about them:
‘As to the Jews, they are divided into many sects, the principal of which are the Rabbani, the Sâmari, and the Qarravi, who agree on the prophetship of Moses, of Aaron, and of Joshua, upon whom be blessing and peace; and on the Torah [Pentateuch] and its commandments, though its copies are changed and differ; but they extract from it six hundred and thirteen ordinances, according to which they worship. The Rabbani and Qarravi differ from the Sâmari, inasmuch as they acknowledge other prophets besides the ones just mentioned, from whom they take nineteen books, which they add to the five books of the Torah. They consider twenty-four books to be prophetical, and divide them into four sections. The first is the Torah, which consists of five books. In the first the beginning of the creation and history from Adam to Joseph—upon whom be blessing and peace—are recorded. In the second the enslaving of the Israelites by the Egyptians, the coming of Moses, u. w. bl. a. p., the destruction of Pharaoh, the establishment of the ark of the covenant, the events in the wilderness, the Emamship of Aaron, u. w. bl. a. p., the promulgation of the decalogue, and the hearing by the people of the words of Allah the Most High, are related. The third book contains a summary of the commandments. The fourth the number of the people, the distribution of the land to them, the circumstances of the envoys sent by Moses to Syria, the history of the [falling of] Mannah, the quails, and of the cloud. The fifth contains the numbers of the commandments of the Torah to elucidate the summary account; it also records the decease of Aaron and of Moses, and the succession of Joshua, u. w. bl. a. p.
‘The second section is divided into four books, the first of which is that of Joshua, where the cessation of the Mannah, and their eating of the fruits of the earth after the celebration of the sacrifice, the war of Joshua with the Canaanites, his conquering the country, and dividing it by casting lots, are recorded. The second is known as the book of Judges, and contains their history, with that of the children of Israel during the period of the first temple. The third is of Samuel, u. w. bl. a. p.; it contains the prophecy and government of Talût [Saul], the story of David’s killing of Jalût [Goliath]; and the fourth is known as the book of Kings, which contains the history of the Kings David and Solomon, u. w. bl. a. p., and of others; the division of the kingdom among the tribes, the wars, the first emigration, the advent of Nebuchadnezzar, and the demolition of the holy temple.
‘The third section contains four books, called “The Last.” The first of them is Isaiah, u. w. bl. a. p., in which the threats of Allah the Most High to the children of Israel are recorded, as also what is to happen in the future; good news to the patient are promulgated, as well as an allusion to the second temple on the delivery [from captivity] by means of King Cyrus. The second is by Jeremiah, u. w. bl. a. p., and mentions the total destruction of the temple, with the emigration to Egypt. The third is Ezechiel, u. w. bl. a. p.; it contains natural, astronomical, and mystic wisdom, the description of the temple, with the history of Gog and Magog. The fourth consists of twelve books, with forebodings of wars and earthquakes, as well as of other things; it points to what is expected to happen, as also to the resurrection; it records the prophecy of Jonah, u. w. bl. a. p., his drowning and being swallowed by the whale; the repentance of the people, and the advent of the enemy [at Nineveh and its subversion]; the prayer of Habakkuk, and the prophecy of Zecharias, u. w. bl. a. p.; an allusion to the great day [of judgment], and the glad tidings of the coming of Khizer, u. w. bl. a. p.
‘The fourth section is called “The Books,” and contains four of them. The first contains the history of Adam up to the second temple, the establishment of the tribes and of the nations of the world. The second, the Psalms of David, u. w. bl. a. p., which amount to the number of one hundred and fifty, and consist partly of requests and partly of prayers about Moses, u. w. bl. a. p., and others. The third contains the story of Job, u. w. bl. a. p., with rhetorical disputations. The fourth has wise parables of Solomon, u. w. bl. a. p. The fifth, the history of sages before the kings. The sixth contains Hebrew songs of Solomon, u. w. bl. a. p., and dialogues between the soul and the intellect. The seventh is called “The Collection of the Wisdom of Solomon,” u. w. bl. a. p.; it consists of exhortations to seek intellectual joys, which are lasting, and to scorn sensual ones, which are perishable; praises of Allah, the Most High, and admonitions concerning Him. The eighth is called “The Lamentations of Jeremiah,” u. w. bl. a. p., and is divided into five chapters according to the alphabetical letters marked with diacritical points, and contains threnodies on the temple. The ninth is about King Ardeshir and A’b-un-nûr. The tenth is of Daniel, u. w. bl. a. p., and contains the interpretation of the dreams of Nebuchadnezzar and of his son; mysteries to happen in the world, and predictions about the resurrection and the day of judgment. The eleventh is of O’zair [Ezra], u. w. bl. a. p.; it contains the description of the people’s return from the land of Babel [Babylon] to the second temple and its building.
‘The Rabbani Jews differ from other sects in the explanation of the ordinances of the Torah, and they derive the details thereof from Moses, u. w. bl. a. p.
‘As to the Christians, their sects are also numerous, the three principal ones of them, however, are—the Melikites, the Jacobites, and the Nestorians. All agree that Allah, the Most High, is one in nature, i.e. in essence, but three in personality, i.e. in qualities. The meaning of person is “individual quality,” and they consider these persons to be the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. By the Father they mean the essence with the existence; by the Son, the essence with the knowledge; they also call him “the word,” and define him as “the union”; by the Holy Ghost they mean “the essence with the life.” Yahia Bin A’dy has philosophically, but contrary to their opinions, explained these persons by “the intellect, the intelligent, and the intelligible.” This they reject, and believe that the Messiah was born by Mary, slain, and crucified. Three hundred and seventeen of their elders assembled in the presence of the Emperor of Constantinople, and composed the articles of religion, which they surnamed “The [Confession of] Faith.” This, as well as the creed of the Christian religion, they took from the Injil [Evangel], which they possess, and which is the history of the Messiah, u. w. bl. a. p. It was collected by four of his companions, namely: Matâ, Lûqá, Mârqûs, and Yohanna. The word Injil means “glad tidings.” They have also a book known as “The Canons,” which is composed by their elders, and resorted to in the details of worship, in transactions and the like. They use the Psalms as prayers.
‘The Melikites stand alone in their assertion that a portion of the Deity has for our sake assumed humanity, become one with the body of the Messiah, and incarnate therein. They do not call “the knowledge” before its incarnation “the Son,” but “the Messiah,” although the Son became incarnate. They believe that “the word” commingled with the body, as wine mixes with water and milk. They state that the nature of the three persons is different; they believe in their Trinity, and are alluded to in the words of the Most High: “They are certainly infidels who say Allah is the third of the three.”* They assert that the Messiah was wholly, and not partly, human, and that the killing and crucifixion befell humanity, but not Deity.
‘The Jacobites are distinguished by their maintaining the Deity of the Messiah, u. w. bl. a. p. They assert that “the word” was changed into flesh and blood, and became the Messiah; that he is God and manifest in the flesh. To them the Most High alludes in the words: “They are infidels who say, Verily, God is Christ, the son of Mary.”* They believe that “the word” was united to a part, but not to the whole of the man; they believe that the Messiah has one nature, and one person, but that he partakes of two natures, whereby they perhaps mean that his temperament is composed of two temperaments.
‘The Nestorians are discerned by their dogma that the Deity shone upon humanity as the sun shines on crystal, and appeared in it as the appearance of the sun on a signet ring. Some of them assert that the coming down of the Deity into humanity is the descent of the grandeur and dignity, which were most complete and perfect in the humanity of the Messiah above anything else. They agree with the Melikites that the Messiah was slain and crucified on account of his manhood, and not on account of his Godhood; by the former his body, and by the latter his soul, is meant. O Allah Most High! protect us from the great blasphemies which oppressors and infidels utter. Praise be to Allah, who has bestowed on us Islâm, and has guided us by his prophet Muhammad, upon whom be the most excellent blessings and peace.’
It is natural that Muhammadan authors drew their notions of Christianity from the Eastern sects they came in contact with, as they knew nothing about the Western ones; and such was much more the case in earlier than in later times. Even then, however, all Christian sects professed to consider the Bible to be the chief source and standard of their religion, just as the Moslems regard the Qurân to be the basis of their faith. But for all that, how many Christian sects both did, and still do, anathematize each other, while the Muhammadans do much the same. The Bible has been variously explained, and so has the Qurân; and this has not ceased even in our own times after many centuries of controversy. All human things are mutable, and so are creeds. Traditions which have in course of time acquired much authority, must in great measure be held responsible for the changes gradually taking place in the tenets of various sects, and even for the rise of new ones. As Christian tradition has in various matters departed from the Bible,* so has Muhammadan tradition departed from the Qurân; one of these last it will not be out of place to adduce here as an example. According to tradition, Moslems believe that their prophet worked miracles—some of which will be related in detail during the course of this work under the ‘Life of Muhammad’— whereas it appears from the Qurân that he claimed no such power. To show this, the following passages may be quoted:
‘Nothing hindered us from sending [thee] with miracles except that the former [nations] have charged them with imposture.’*
‘They say, unless a sign be sent unto him from his Lord [we will not believe]. Answer: Signs are in the power of Allah alone, and I am [no more than] a public preacher.’* ‘And they say: We will by no means believe on thee, until thou cause a spring of water to gush forth for us out of the earth; or to have a garden of palm trees, or of vines, and thou cause rivers to spring forth from the midst thereof in abundance, or thou cause the heavens to fall down upon us—as thou hast given out—in pieces; or thou bring down Allah and the angels to vouch [for thee]; or thou have a house of gold, or thou ascend by a ladder to heaven: neither will they believe thy ascending [thither alone] until thou cause a book to descend to us [bearing witness of thee] which we may read. Answer: My Lord be praised! am I other than a man, sent as an apostle?’* ‘The infidels say: Unless some sign be sent down unto him from the Lord [we will not believe]. Answer: Verily Allah is able to send down a sign, but the greater part of them know it not.’* ‘That which ye desire to be hastened is not in my power: judgment [belongeth] only to Allah, He will determine the truth, and He is the best discerner.’* ‘They have sworn by Allah the most solemn oath, that if a sign came unto them they would certainly believe therein. Say: Verily signs are in the power of Allah alone, and He permitteth you not to understand that when they come they will not believe.’*
Besides the discrepancies between the accounts of the Bible and the Qurân, there are numerous historical events of early times which are represented differently by occidental and by oriental authors. All ancient history is initially based on oral traditions, much more than on written documents, which have followed them later. In those written accounts Muhammadan writers, even whilst they sometimes differ from each other, may be said to run in a kind of parallel grooves amongst themselves, and to be utterly at variance with European authors, who on their part displayed in early times a lamentable ignorance of, and culpable indifference towards, Eastern history. Thus, for instance, the ancient Persians had a series of kings about whom the Greek historians knew next to nothing, and the names of those they did mention they distorted in such a way as to make them almost unrecognisable. With the names of cities they dealt even more arbitrarily, and seemed to change every name they met with, or adapt it to their own pronunciation. On the other hand, all the oriental accounts about Alexander the Great, whose name is changed by them to Eskander, must be set down as purely mythical. We find that Firdausi (who died A.D. 1030), and Nizami (who died A.D. 1180), as also several other Persian poets and historians, make Alexander the Great a son of the Persian King Darius, by a daughter of the Macedonian Philip, while occidental authors are entirely reticent on this point. Such discrepancies will, of course, appear in this work in a stronger light than in the present remarks; but they are worthy of interest, and the more so as steam and electricity are now causing the West and the East to merge into close contact, so that they ought to become better acquainted with each other historically, politically, and socially.
A history, then, composed by an oriental author, and written in the spirit of Muhammadanism, ought to be considered as a valuable contribution, tending to promote a better acquaintance with the Eastern Moslem world. No work of this kind is more popular or more highly esteemed than the ‘Rauzat-us-safa fi siret-ulambiâ va ulmulûk va ulkhulfâ,’ generally called ‘The Garden of Purity, containing the Histories of Prophets, Kings and Khalifs.’ The word ‘Rauzat’ means literally a garden, but usage has in all Muhammadan countries, as well as in India, assigned to it the signification of a mausoleum surrounded by a garden or park.* The word ‘safa’ is a plural, meaning pure, holy, and by extension illustrious. Hence the more correct translation of the above title would be as follows: ‘Mausoleum of Illustrious Men, containing the Biographies of Prophets, Kings and Khalifs.’ The author is known by the name of Muhammad Bin Khâvendshâh Bin Mahmûd, but more familiarly and simply as Mirkhond. He died A.H. 903, A.D. 1498, and the patron by whose order he composed this work was A’li Shir, the Amir of Hirât.
The Rauzat-us-safa is so voluminous that only some portions of it have as yet been translated, although as early as A.D. 1662 historical accounts from it were given in a book called ‘Les états et principautés du monde,’ first in a French, afterwards in an Italian, and lastly in an English translation by Stevens in A.D. 1715. This rich mine of historical and of religious lore has, however, afterwards been gradually, though as yet only partially, explored in fourteen European works by authors of various nationalities, as will appear from the following list:
‘Historia priorum regum Persarum post firmatum in regno Islamismum. Ex Mohammade Mirchond. Persice et Latine cum notis geographicis et literariis. Vienna, 1780, 4to.’
‘Mémoires sur diverses antiquités de la Perse et sur les médailles des rois de la dynastie des Sassanides, suivis de l’histoire de cette dynastie. Traduction du Persan de Mirchond par Silvestre de Sacy. Paris, 1793, 4to.’
‘Mohammedi filii Chavendschahi vulgo Mirchondi historia Samanidarum, persice e codice bibliothecæ regiæ Hannoveranæ nunc primum edidit interpretatione latina, annotationibus historicis et indicibus illustravit. Fr. Wilken. Göttingæ, 1804, 4to.’
‘Notice sur l’histoire universelle de Mirchond intitulée le jardin de la pureté, suivie de l’histoire de la dynastie des Ismaëliens de Perse, extraite du même ouvrage en persan et en français, par M. A. Jourdain. Paris, 1812, 4to.’
‘Mirchondi historia Jaheridarum, historicis notis incognitorum Persiæ principum, persice et latine edidit. E. Mitscherlich, Göttingæ, 1814, 8vo. ed., da Berlini, 1819, 8vo.’
‘Mirchondi historia Ghuridarum, regum Persiæ Indiæque, atque Carachitarum imperatorum Tartariæ. E libris manuscriptis persice et latine edidit et annotavit Dr. E. Mitscherlich. Francofurti ad Mœnum, 1818, 8vo.’
‘History of the early kings of Persia from Kaimars, the first of the Peshdadian dynasty to the conquest of Iran by Alexander the Great. Translated from the original Persian of Mirkhond, entitled the ‘Rauzat-us-safa,’ with notes and illustrations by David Shea. London, 1832, 8vo.’
‘Mohammedi filii Chondschahi vulgo Mirchondi historia Ghasnavidarum Persice. E codicibus Berolinensibus aliisque nunc primum edidit, lectionis varietate instruxit, latine vertit, annotationibus historicis illustravit. Fredericus Wilken. Berolini, 1831, 1 vol., 4to.’
‘Geschichte der Sultane aus dem Geschlechte Bujeh, persisch und deutsch Von Friedr Wilken. Berlin, 1835, 4to.’
‘Erläuterung und Ergänzung eineger Stellen der von Mirchond verfassten Geschichte des Stammes Buwieh durch Franz von Erdmann. Kasan, 1836, 8vo.’
‘Mirkhondi historia Seldschukidarum persice e codicibus manuscriptis Parasino et Berolinensi nunc primum edidit, lectionis varietate instruxit, annotationibus philologicis et criticis illustravit Joannes Augustus Vullers, Phil. Doct. litt. orient. in academia Ludoviciana Gissiensi P.P.O. Societates Asiaticæ Parisiensis sodalis. Gissæ, 1837, 8vo.’
‘Mirkhond’s Geschichte der Seldschuken aus dem persischen zum erstenmal übersetzt mit historischen, geographischen und literarischen Anmerkungen erläutert Von Dr. Johann August Vullers, Professor der morganländischen Sprachen und Litteratur und der Universität Giessen. Mitglied der asiat. Ges. zu Paris. Mit einer Geschlechtstafel und einem Sachregister. Giessen, 1838, 8vo.’
‘Vie de Djenghiz-Khan par Mirkhond (text persan), à l’usage des élèves de l’école spéciale des langues orientales, par M. Defrémery. Paris, 1845, 8vo.’
‘The history of the Atabeks of Syria and Persia, by Muhammad Bin Khâvendshâh Bin Mahmûd, commonly called Mirkhond. Now first edited from the collation of sixteen MSS. by W. H. Morley, to which is added a series of facsimiles of the coins struck by the Atabeks, arranged and described by W. S. W. Vaux. London, 1850, 8vo.’
The present work will be an addition to the above list, under the title of ‘Prophets and Kings; or, Sacred and Profane History according to the Moslem Belief.’ The first part will extend from the creation of genii and men till the extinction of the Sassanian dynasty under Yazdijard. It will be a complete translation of the first volume of the ‘Rauzat-us-safa,’ omitting only the portion translated by David Shea, and mentioned in the list given above. The second part will contain the life of Muhammad, translated from the first portion of the second volume of the ‘Rauzat-us-safa,’ with an appendix on his wives, concubines, children, amanuenses, almsgatherers, servants, freed men and women, translated from the ‘Habib-us-siar’ of Khondemir, the son of the author of the ‘Rauzat-us-safa.’
The Persian copy used in the production of the ‘Prophets and Kings’ was lithographed in Bombay A.H. 1271/A.D. 1854, and has been faithfully rendered into English by the translator. The names Jebrail, Yusuf, I’sa, Mûsa, Habil, Qabil, and many others, have been retained, and their English equivalents, Gabriel, Joseph, Jesus, Moses, Abel, and Cain, have been added in brackets only when necessary. The detailed table of contents will enable the reader to find any person or subject he may require. In the footnotes references are given to the passages quoted from the Qurân in the text.
E. REHATSEK.