To resume however the subject of affection, it is to be observed, that since the causes of all affection not divine are interest and pleasure, which are always liable to terminate, it may happen that it terminates at the same time on both sides; or it may happen that it terminates on one side and con­tinues on the other. And when the cause of affec­tion is pleasure on one side and interest on the other, this contrariety will lead to much complaint. As in the affection of vocalist and hearer, where the hearer is friendly to the singer on the score of plea­sure, and the singer to the hearer on the score of interest; or as in the affection of lover to his mis­tress, where the lover is friendly to his mistress on the score of pleasure, and the mistress to the lover on that of interest. What gives rise to complaints in this species of affection is this: the votary of pleasure is in haste to obtain it, and the votary of interest defers it till his own object has been secured; so that much agreement is not to be expected between them.* Hence it is that lovers are so invariably (by their own account) ill and unjustly treated. Whereas in reality it is they who are unjust; being forward to claim the pleasure of inter­views and favours, and backward to requite these with their equivalent in interest. This species they call reproachful affection, meaning that reproach goes along with it.

Now the affection subsisting between king and subject, officer and subordinate, rich and poor, master and slave, having likewise a contrariety in the incentive on both sides, is never devoid of com­plaint: for they severally seek at the hands of the other party for something which in most cases sub­sists no longer. And then the loss of this object invariably leads to indifference, which is matter of complaint; and without equity, whose attribute it is to ensure contentment with the exact measure of right, there is no palliating this evil.*

Far different is the affection of the virtuous. Arising from spiritual conjunction and mental unity, not from the contingencies of interest and pleasure, and having for its object that perfect good which is inaccessible to change, it is exempt from dissension, altercation, indifference, complaint, and all perturb­ing influences. This is the meaning of a saying with the wise, “Let your friend be one who is yourself in reality, and another only in form, and you have found the philosopher’s stone.” Shaikh Abù Aly Seenā, in his treatise the Tair, is enthu­siastic upon the favour it is to meet with this spe­cies of friendship. Inasmuch as the generality of men, he says, have no acquaintance with the essence of good; founding their affection upon pleasure and interest; and whatever is founded on contin­gencies, with contingencies will pass away.

The affection of kings for their subjects is mostly on the score of their being patrons and benefactors towards them;* and we know the patron is sure to have a regard for the patronized. The affection of a father for his children, in regard of his possessing rights over them, is likewise of the same class. But in another regard, his love for his son is part of his being, considering him as another self,* and his person as a copy taken from his own characteristics — the resemblance left by his life upon the tablet of creation. And in truth the feeling is a correct one; the father being formal cause of the son’s existence, the material of his body, a portion of him in dispo­sition, and that disposition most answering to his own. Hence it is, that every accomplishment he desires in himself he desires also in his son; nay, he wishes his son may be yet more excellent than he, and is rejoiced at being surpassed by him; counting his son’s superiority to himself of the same sort as if we told him he had gone beyond himself; that is, beyond what he used to be. At such a compliment he would be delighted, and is similarly pleased at the pre-eminence of his son. But besides this source of the parent’s affection towards his children, there is another likewise in operation; which is the feeling themselves their patrons and benefactors, as we said in the case of king and sub­jects; and the greater pains he takes with their education, the stronger this affection becomes. Yet a third cause is his hope of attaining certain ends by their means, and possessing a species of second life after the termination of his own. These principles, to the generality of parents unknown in their details, are yet summarily apprehended by all; like outlines of a figure shadowed from behind a cur­tain: which species of knowledge, in the case of affection and other such feelings, is always sufficient for their production.

The affection of son for father is less than that of father for son; for his existence, as resulting from the father’s, is subsequent to it, and it is only after some years that he becomes aware of the fact; and therefore, supposing him not to see his father, nor be advantaged for any long period by his company, he would never arrive at any affection for him. Hence it is, that in the Institute the injunctions on children to love and honor their parents are expressed without the converse.

Between brothers the affection will be still less; for they are partners in the same rank and reason of existence, and partnership necessitates a certain species and degree of dissension. Certain philoso­phers, when questioned which was best, a brother or a friend, replied, “A brother is of no use till he is a friend.*

A monarch’s affection for his subjects ought to be of a fatherly sort; he should behave in a tender and considerate way towards them. While the sub­jects, in obedience, submission, fidelity, and regard, ought to follow the example of discreet sons; never, either privily or openly, attempting any thing that may unbeseem his dignity, and deeming it a duty to serve him to the utmost of their power. There is a saying of the wise, that to a just king all men must be soldiers, if they would not be rebels. Even if he receives no personal attendance from them, they should aid him with their prayers and good wishes, and so increase virtually the amount of his soldiery. To him likewise they owe it to lead a life of brotherly affection with each other, and look for rank and property in strict accordance with their desert. Then will the light of equity illuminate the empire and the age, and the world be one wide bower for the blessings of concord and tenderness to blossom in. But if they do otherwise, the king­dom’s temperament will depart from its equipoise, and the adjustment of its interests be speedily broken up; — which God avert.*

Affection then is of several orders; first, affection for Almighty God, the source of good and the mine of perfection — a feeling only attainable to the profi­cient divine, who, as far as man may be so, is acquainted with the beauty of his attributes and the glory of his nature. For affection cannot subsist without acquaintance. He who, without acquaintance, and scientific acquaintance, should lay claim to affection for God, would be an ignorant pre­tender; and the purport of that saying of the beloved of God, Never hath he taken the ignorant for his servant, will give him the lie. This affection must necessarily be the highest of any, for to asso­ciate any other with it is mere polytheism.

The second order is affection for parents, the formal causes of our existence. This ranks next to the first, no other order approaching to it except it be that of scholar for his instructor; which ought indeed to be a closer affection even than this. For if the father is cause of all the affinities of life and of bodily nurture, the instructor is cause of his attainments — of spiritual nurture — the dispenser of the form of humanity — so as to be, in fact, the father of his soul. In proportion then as the soul is superior to the body, the instructor is supe­rior to the father; and affection for him, though of lower order than that for the single-natured, is above that for a parent.* When Alexander was asked for which he felt most regard, his father or his preceptor, he answered, for his preceptor. Because his father was cause of his mortal life, and his master cause of his immortal one.

There is a dictum of the Prophet, “Fathers you have three. He that begot you, he that instructed you, and he that gave you a wife: and the instructor is the best among them.” And another of Aly the accepted, “Whoso teaches me a letter renders me his slave.” The affection for a teacher being of so high an order of stringency, affection for the Institutor, who is the veracious director and highest of perfections, must be the closest of any, after that for God himself. And hence the declaration of God’s beloved, “None of ye believeth in me, until I become dearer to him than life, wife, or child.” Next to our affection for the Institutor may come that for the holy Caliphs and Pontiffs of the faith; — those lamps of inspiration and high roads of direction; — as we have it among the dicta, “Whoso loveth my followers, them shall my love follow; and whoso hateth my followers, them shall my hatred follow.” Again, “He that loveth the learned loveth me;” and again, “He that honoreth the learned honoreth me.”

The third order is the affection of subjects for their king, and of king for his subjects; which some have considered more binding than that for a parent. And, in fact, the assertion has reason on its side. For without the king’s superinten­dence, little advantage can be expected from the father, to whom this superintendence is as necessary as the father’s to his child.*

The fourth in order is the affection of acquaintances and companions.* Now all the objects in the respective orders are to be entertained in their relative position. The several degrees of affection must not be confounded; for to pervert the obser­vance of rights due to different orders, is a breach of equity and an element of ruin. Perfidy in feeling is worse than perfidy in property; inasmuch as it falls upon the qualities of the soul, which are superior to the richest jewels of the person.

The love of the object beloved, however, as Aris­totle remarks, is soon withdrawn; just as of spurious gold the alloy is soon discovered. Our best course, therefore, is to follow the path of equity, both towards Creator and his creatures; and to entertain for every one the love that is his due: by this rule, practising towards the Creator the obedience incumbent for the attainment of his further favour, towards the Prophet and dignitaries of the faith conformity with their precepts and observance of all deference and veneration, towards kings honor and obedience, towards parents reverence and devotedness, towards individual men kindness and reciprocal good faith.