Having reviewed the various branches of learning in their scientific aspects, I proceed to some account of their practical modes of life.
Among the Bráhmans, the period of individual life, after the intelligence is to some degree matured, is divided into four portions, to each of which is assigned its special important duties. These periods severally receive the name of A´śrama.
THE FIRST PERIOD is the Brahma-charya, or religious studentship. Investiture with the sacred thread is regarded by the Bráhmans as the first principle of their creed, and the three superior castes do not acknowledge the right of due membership without it. With a Bráhman it must be made in the eighth year, or if this auspicious time is suffered to elapse, it may be performed up to sixteen years of age. A Kshatriya may be invested between eleven and twenty-two years of age, and a Vaiśya from twelve to twenty-four, but a Súdra is not considered a fitting recipient. It is imperative that the investiture should take place for each caste within the prescribed periods from which date the initiation is reckoned, otherwise there is exclusion from caste. The Bráhman receives the sacred string from his father or teacher, and the two other castes from a Bráhman. None but a Bráhman may twist the string, and that which he wears for the first time must be twisted by his father or teacher or by himself. The teacher's son has also the same privilege. Three strands, in length ninety-six times the circumference of the fist, are united and twisted, making a twist of nine strands. This is again folded into three without twisting and secured by a knot at each end. This is the sacred thread. It is placed on the left shoulder and carried across the body to the right side, and thus the length is from the shoulder to the thumb of the right hand. It is worn diagonally like a belt. A Bráhman wears five together, the other two castes, but three. Some authorities say that a cotton thread is for the special use of the Bráhman, woollen for the Kshatriya and hempen thread for the Vaiśya. Similarly, a thong of deer-skin, three fingers in breadth, is worn with it but not of the same length. A Bráhman uses the skin of the black antelope; a Kshatriya the skin of any other kind of deer, and a Vaiśya of a goat. At this period they also wear round the waist a girdle of a particular kind of grass called in Sanskrit Muñja (Saccharum Munja).
He next learns the gáyatrí,* which are certain words in praise of the sun, resembling the kalimah or profession of faith in Islám. He also receives a staff of paláśa wood (Butea frondosa), but for the other two castes it is made of some other wood.
He leaves his father's house and chooses a lodging near his teacher, learns his letters and begins reading the Vedas. He first reads that Veda which it is his special duty to learn, and then the remaining three. They relate that when the sage Vyása divided the Vedas into four parts, he instructed one of his pupils in each, from which time the descendants and the pupils of these respectively read their own Veda first. The Vedas are never read during the first degree of the moon's course (pariwá), nor during the eighth, fourteenth, fifteenth, or thirtieth, nor on the night of the fourth, eighth, or fourteenth, nor during an eclipse of the sun, but any of the other acts may be performed at those times.
When a Bráhman goes to relieve the necessities of nature, he hangs the sacred thread upon his right ear, and on such an occasion by day, turns his face to the north and by night to the south. He washes himself five times, each time first mixing the water with earth, and then washes the left hand ten times in the same manner, and next both hands seven times, and lastly both his feet in the same way. After he urines, he washes the part as above described and the left hand three times and each hand and foot once. From the day of his investiture till sixteen years of age, this number of purifications must be observed and doubled after he exceeds that age. Next, in a chosen spot, he should sit down on his haunches facing the east or north, keeping his knees erect and with his hand between them should drink three fills of his palm. A Bráhman should swallow as much water as will reach his chest: a Kshatriya as much as will suffice to reach his throat; a Vaiśya, as far as the root of his tongue. A ´Súdra may drink but once. He then uses a tooth stick (miswák) twelve fingers breadth in length, taking a fresh one every day.
He may not wear more than four coverings for his person. These are: (1). Langoṭí, or waist-cloth, which is worn to cover only two parts of his body. (2). A small lung* worn above the other. (3). A sheet without suture, over his shoulders. (4). A small cap for his head. He should bathe before sunrise, wearing only the sacred thread, the girdle of múnja, and the langoṭi. He first takes up a little water in his right hand, saying: “I pray that any fault I have committed may be put away from me.”* After which he throws the water away. With this intention his ablutions are entered upon. Then he rubs himself all over with earth, and if he be in a river, he dips three times, otherwise, he pours water over himself thrice and rubs his body all over with his hands. He then pronounces the name of God, and taking water three times in the hollow of his hand sips a little and begins to repeat certain prayers, at the conclusion of which he continues sprinkling water upon his head. He next closes his nostrils with two fingers and dashing water over his face, repeats other prayers and dips or throws water over himself thrice. Then wetting both his hands, he sprinkles his forehead, chest and both shoulders seven times, and taking up water with joined hands, casts it towards the sun eight times, repeating special prayers, and sips some water thrice. He next performs the práṇáyáma as described in the section on the Pátañjala system.* The ablutions are meritorious in degree according to their performance in the following order—in a river, a tank, a well, or a house. He then clothes himself. If he be a follower of Ráma, he marks his forehead horizontally with ashes; if of Kṛishṇa,* he draws the sectarial mark in twelve places, viz., on his forehead, his breast, his navel, the right and left sides thereof, his right and left shoulders, the two lobes of his ears, his loins, the crown of his head and the throat. The clay of the Ganges is considered the most efficacious for this purpose but saffron and the like are also used. A ´Súdra marks his forehead with only a circle. After this he takes his staff and slings across his shoulders the deer-skin and occupies himself with the Sandhyá, which consists of certain religious exercises, sprinkling and sipping water, and the like.* Next comes the lighting of the fire and certain burnt offerings are made which is called the Homa sacrifice.
When these ceremonies are concluded, he goes to his teacher and gains merit by waiting upon him and reading the Vedas. At midday, the ablution and the ceremonies aforesaid are repeated with some variation and some increase in their number. When these are over he sets out begging alms and solicits from three, five, or seven houses, but avoids a ´Súdra. After cooking a sufficient meal he carries it to his teacher and with his permission, eats it. He precedes his meal with prayers and a few ceremonies and eats in silence and then repeats other prayers. When it is near dusk, he again performs the Sandhyá and Homa rites and occupies himself with reading. After a watch of the night has elapsed, he sleeps upon the ground, making his couch of straw or a tiger's skin or deer-skin or the like. He should avoid honey, betel-leaf, and perfumes. He should shave his head, keeping a tuft only, but the hair of the other parts of the body should be suffered to grow. He should not use collyrium nor anoint himself with oil, and should abstain from singing, dancing and gaming. He should not kill any animal nor have any commerce with women nor eat of anything not tasted first by his teacher. He should abstain from falsehood, anger, avarice and envy, and not defile his tongue by speaking ill of any one though he deserve it, and make his days meritorious by practices of piety. In prayer he should turn to the east or north and he should not look towards the sun in its rising or setting. Some pass forty-eight years in the Brahmacharya stage, allowing twelve years for the study of each Veda. Some take only five years, and others till the Vedas are learnt. Others again spend their lives in this manner and undergo austerities in the hope of final liberation.
The Second Period is the Gárhasthya, or a state in which the duties of a householder are observed and the person so engaged is called Gṛihastha. When the Brahmachárin has completed his studies, if he feels called to the religious life and his heart is estranged from the world, nothing can more conduce to his welfare than the endeavour to attain eternal bliss, but if he has no such vocation, he should seek the consent of his teacher and, having obtained permission, return to his father's house. He then puts away all but his sacred thread, but continues the oblations and some other ceremonies, the number of the oblations being the same as during his period of pupilage as Brahmachárin. If he be a Bráhman, he wears a turban, and a sheet eight cubits in length and two in breadth is put on in the fashion of a loin-cloth, one end being passed between his legs and fastened behind to the waist-piece, and the other end brought forward and tied similarly in front. Another sheet, five cubits long and two broad, is worn over the shoulders, and this may have a suture. A householder of other castes wears different garments. He now marries in the manner that shall be presently described.
The householder repeats certain prayers and thus performs the Homa sacrifice. He takes in his hand a stick of pipal or palás wood, a span in length and burns it in the Homa fire. Another stick of the same kind is taken and passed into the fire and reserved, and when the next Homa takes place, this stick is burnt and another like the first is scorched and reserved, and this is continued till the time of the Agni-hotra.* This is a special kind of Homa or oblation. A pipal stick is set alight by means of two other sticks and a cord forcibly worked by the hand, and the fire is placed in three round earthen vessels. The figure of a tortoise is then made of a ser and-a-quarter of rice-flour, and the three portions are cooked in one lump and dressed with oil, and part of this is thrown into the three fires as an oblation to the deities, and the remainder is given to Bráhmans. One of the three portions of the sacrificial fire is reserved, and throughout his whole life, the daily Homa oblation is made with that fire; the oblations cast into the fire in the name of the deities consist of any barley, rice, clarified butter, milk, wheat, that may be available, and once every fifteen days in the first degree of the moon's course he carries out the ceremony as before. The ceremony of the Agni-hotra may not take place till the period has elapsed between the fourth day after his marriage and that on which the bride leaves her father's house (to join her husband).* With the exception of the ´Súdra and the Mlechchha, the rest of the people come generally under this second denomination. Four ghaṛis before daybreak, the householder awakes and passes some little time on his bed in prayer. He divides his day into eight portions, thus profitably employing his time.
First, when the rays of the sun appear, he refreshes his sight with its lustre, and next by looking upon fire, water, gold, a just prince, a Bráhman, a cow, and clarified butter. If none of these eight be present, he must look upon the palms of his hands, and proceed to wash his mouth and perform the Sandhyá ceremonies. The second portion of his time he must employ in study and occupy himself in the interpretation of the Vedas and other branches of knowledge. The third he spends in attendance on his prince, and engages in state affairs. The fourth is occupied with his own household. The fifth, which is about the entry of noon, he spends in ablutions and the Sandhyá ceremonies, and taking up water in both hands, offers it to the deities, the great Ṛishis and (the manes of) his ancestors, and repeats certain prayers. This libation is called tarpaṇa. During the sixth, he prays to Vishṇu, Mahádeva, the Sun, Durga, and G aṇeśa. This is called Deva-pújá, or worship of the gods, as will be more fully described hereafter. In the seventh, he casts into the fire some of his food as an offering to the gods, and makes the Homa sacrifice. Next follows the Atithi-pújá (or the religious reception of a guest). He waits expectantly for any hungry person, and when he meets him, treats him with respect and satisfies his need, after which he himself eats, and this act is called the Vaiśvadeva-pújá (or offering to all deities). A Bráhman obtains his food in the following way. When the husbandman has reaped his field and the poor have gleaned their fill, the Bráhman then follows in quest, and takes what he can find, and if he does not feel content with this, he may receive from his own people; and if this is insufficient, he may accept whatever is given to him without solicitation by another Bráhman, a Kshatriya, or a Vaiśya. If this is not his choice, he may beg; and if he will not submit to this, he may cultivate land. Trade is considered more objectionable. A Bráhman should not keep more than twelve days' supply of food, but to others an abundance is permitted, as has been explained. In the eighth, he listens to the recital of the lives of former holy men and performs the ceremonies of the Homa and Sandhyá. If he is hungry, he takes his meal. He then occupies himself till the first watch of the night, in studying works of philosophy and reading the lives of ancient sages, after which he goes to rest. Such are the means by which he profitably employs his day and night. Other ceremonies performed during times of eclipse and festivals, are numerous. Those practised by the Kshatriyas and Vaiśyas who follow their special occupations, are fewer as shall be presently described.
The third period is that of the Vánaprastha or anchorite, a name given also to the person so engaged. This is forbidden to a ´Súdra.
When one (of the other castes) arrives at old age, or has a grandson, he may wisely give up the management of his household to his son or to a relation, abandon worldly concerns, and leaving the city, retire into the desert. He may there build himself a hermitage, and putting away the outward pleasures of sense, practise mortification of his body in preparation for his last journey. If his wife, through affection, desire to accompany him, he may suffer it and not deny her, but he must resist all carnal inclinations. Here he preserves the sacred fire of his daily sacrifice and clothes himself with the leaves of trees or with skins, and he may wear a coarse loin-cloth. He should never cut his hair or his nails and morning, noon, and evening he should perform the prescribed ablutions and the Sandhyá. Like the Gṛihastha, he should perform the Homa sacrifice morning and evening, but his ablutions are three times more numerous, in as much as he performs them ten times to the other's three. He must always keep his head bowed down and follow the instructions given in the Pátañjala system and carefully control the emotions of the spirit. He should employ his time in reading the Vedas, sleep only at night, and lie on the bare ground. During the four months of the hot season he sits between five fires, lighting four about him, and having the sun burning over head. During the four months of the rains he should live upon a stage sustained by four poles, so that he may not be in danger from a flood nor injure minute animals by his movements, nor must he protect himself from the weather. During the four months of the cold season, he should pass the night sitting in cold water. He should always observe the Chándráyaṇa fast and eat only at night. He is permitted to keep a store of food sufficient for a year and should accept nothing from others, living on grain and gathering wild fruits that have fallen. He eats nothing that is cooked, but he may moisten his food. If he can obtain naught else, he may beg of other anchorites, and failing them, he may go into the town to seek the necessaries of life but he must not remain there.
If he is unable to live in this manner, he abandons all sustenance and journeys onwards to the east or north till his bodily powers are exhausted, or he throws himself into fire or water in self destruction, or casts himself down from a precipice and thus ends his life. They consider that heaven is the reward of this course and final liberation is dependent on the profession of asceticism. What is understood by some as mukti, or final liberation, is, that in a former birth, this stage of abandonment of the world had been attained.
The fourth period is Sannyása, which is an extraordinary state of austerity that nothing can surpass, and which when duly carried out is rewarded by final liberation. Such a person His Majesty calls Sannyásí.*
After the completion of the third stage, and the habit of self-denial in all sensual pleasures is acquired, the disciple first obtains the permission of his teacher and then quits his wife, shaves his head, beard, and the hair of his face and abandons all worldly concerns. His teacher presents him with a loin-cloth and some covering and accepts a trifle in return. He does not occupy himself with reading, but applies himself entirely to spiritual contemplation. He passes his life alone in the wilds, performs his ablutions morning, noon, and evening, and is scrupulous in self-purification and practises the duties described in the Pátañjala system, carrying them out after his own method. He performs the Sandhyá and then repeats from one to twelve thousand times the word Om, which is the beginning of the Vedas. At the fourth ghaṛí before the close of day, he goes into the city, and repeats the name of God, begging at three, five, or seven houses of Bráhmans, but does not take more than a handful of food from each. If they put it into his hand he straightway eats it, or if they throw it on the ground, he takes it up with his mouth or gathers it in a cloth and eats it after cleansing it in a stream. He then retires to a place where there is no sign of the cooking of food or lighting of a fire. He avoids a ´Súdra or a Mlechchha and if he is not quickly supplied with food, he does not wait. After eating he directs his eyes to the tip of his nose or to his brow and passes a brief space in meditation. He walks with his head and feet bare and does not remain in any one place. If he is compelled to pass through a city or village, he does not remain in the former more than three days nor in the latter more than one. In the rains he abides in one spot and thus is his life passed. Some adopt the course of religious abandonment both during the first and second periods.
Some say that the first period extends to twenty-five years, and the same is allowed for the three other periods. The second is lawful to all the four castes; the first and third to all but ´Súdras, but the fourth is exclusively for Bráhmans.*