The founder of this wonderful system was Jina, called also Arhat* or Arhant. With regard to the Supreme Being, and the doctrines of volun­tary actions, rewards, punishments, hell and heaven, they follow the Mímáṃsá and the Sánkhya. In Svar-loka twenty-six degrees are assigned to the last mentioned abode (heaven) in three groups of twelve, nine and five, in the highest of which dwell the most perfect among the chosen of God. Bodies are believed to be compounded of indivisible atoms. The four elements are composed of homogeneous atoms, and the substrate of each element is different. The world regarded in its atoms is eternal, but non-eternal in its form. Existence takes place on the union of five principles:— (1). Niyata (crude matter) potentiality of cause. (2). Kála, determinate time. (3). Svabháva inherent nature. (4). A´tmá the rational soul: (5). Púrvakṛita, the result of good and evil in former births. Some Ḥindu philosphers ascribe the creation to God, some to Time, and others to the results of actions, and others again to inherent nature (svabháva). Their belief is that the whole universe will not perish, but that some of every kind will survive from the whirlwind of non-existence whence creation will be renewed.

This sect allow only two predicaments:—Pramáṇa (proof) and Prameya (objects of thought). The first of these is two-fold:—(1) Pratyaksha, percep­tion by the five external senses, and by the mind and the soul. The Nyáya, applies this term to the means by which perfect knowledge is obtained. (2). Paroksha (imperceptiblity), knowledge obtained not mediately through the senses.

Pratyaksha (perception) is two-fold. (I). Vyávahárika* (conventional, or practical): this is acquired by the five senses and manas, is employed in external affairs, and called mati-jṅnána (mind-knowledge). This is also two-fold, namely, that which (<Greek>) is apprehended through the five senses, and (<Greek>) apprehended through manas (mind), which this sect does not include among the five senses; and each of these two again is four-fold: (1). Avagraha, distinguishing from the type whether it be horse or man but not discerning the characteristics: (2). I´ha inquiring, as to whence the man, and from what country the horse: (3). Aváya arriving at a correct identification of the above: (4). Dhárana, recollecting the thing particularised and keeping it in mind. (II). Párámárthika (transcendental), knowledge that comes from the illumination of the rational soul and is profitable to emancipation. It is two-fold; viz. Vikala (defective), know­ing some thing and not knowing some other: and Sakala, (entire), knowing all, called also Kevala-jṅnána (pure unalloyed knowledge.) Vikala is again subdivided into Avadhi-jṅnána (limited knowledge), knowledge of special objects which near or remote, are not differentiated;* and Manas­paryáya-jṅnána, definite knowledge of another's thoughts and the laying bare of the secrets of the heart.*

Paroksha (imperceptibitity) is five-fold. (1). Smaraṇa,* recollection of what is unseen. (2). Praty-abhijṅnána, knowledge derived from the witness of another. (3). Tarka, the knowledge of the mutual relation between subject and predicate. (4). Anumána, knowledge from inference, which is established in a series of ten terms, given in detail. (5). ´Sabda, the knowledge obtained from the narration of a speaker without partiality or affection, of clear understanding and true in speech.

Prameya (objects of thought) are six-fold and each is regarded as an eternal substance, and not an aggregate of a determinate measure of atoms; they are likewise held to be imperceptible to the eye and pervade all space. The first is the soul which is a subtile substance in which intelligence abides. It is to the body as the light of a lamp to a house and is believed to be the active agent, or passive recipient of good and evil. It is, of two kinds, Parátmá and Jivátmá. The first is restricted to the Supreme Being and is distinguished by four attributes. Ananta-jṅnána or analytic knowledge extending to the most minute atoms. Ananta-darśana or synthetic knowledge of things collectively. Ananta-vírya, infinite power. Ananta-sukha, infinite happiness.

They do not accept the doctrine of divine incarnations but believe that a man by virtue becomes omniscient, and his utterances in regard to the things appertaining to the spiritual and temporal life are the word of God, and such a one is termed Sákára-Paramesvara (Divinity in bodily form). In the six aras,* of which mention has been made in a previous section, twenty-four such beings come into existence, and in the third and fourth, their earthly existence terminates.*

The first being of this series was A´dinátha, and the last, Mahávíra. Each of them is named a Jina, and wonderful legends are told of them which will be briefly noted later on. The Supreme Being is called Nirguṇa Paramesvara, or the Deity without qualities.

Jivátmá (soul) is variously distinguished. It may be two-fold, viz., locomotive and immovable, as a man or a tree: or three-fold, as man, woman, hermaphrodite: or four-fold namely, forms of men, of vegetable life, of beings of heaven, and those of hell: or five-fold, possessing but one sense,* as the four elements and trees. And these also are of two kinds; (1). such as can be seen, (2). such as are too minute to be perceptible. Each of these (last) five possesses life and has the sense of touch. There are those that possess (at least) two senses,* touch and taste, such as shell-fish, leeches &c.; those with three, as the ant which has the additional sense of hearing: those of four, viz. flies and wasps which to the above three senses, add that of sight: those of five, mankind. There is a further divi­sion of soul into two kinds; those possessing an internal sense and such as are without it, as a leaf.* The Nyáya school also hold this opinion. Since the first and fifth are of two kinds, animal life collectively does not exceed seven, and each may be classed under two heads: (1) Prajá-pati possessor of six powers, namely, of bodily form, of reception of food, of organs of sense, of the powers of speech of breathing, and the internal sense (manas): (2) Aprajá-pati, life which is incapable of these functions. All that possess but one sense, have four faculties, viz., capability of nourishment, assuming form, command of the organs of sense, inspiration and expiration of breath. All that possess two, three, four or five senses, without the internal sense, have five faculties, viz., the four former and that of speech. Those that possess the internal sense have six faculties.

They consider the conjunction in the soul of ten qualities, entitles it to be called living, otherwise it is dead; they are severally called práṇa,* viz., the five senses, the internal sense, faculty of speech, reception of form, inspiration of breath, duration of life. Those that possess five senses are of four classes. (1). Devatá (celestial spirit); (2). Manusha (man); (3). Náraki (inhabitant of the infernal regions); (4). Tiryagyoni (animal creation). The Devatá is formed of a subtile luminous substance by the volition of the Deity, without the process of birth. Their bodies are not of flesh and bone, nor defiled by impurities, and their breathings are redolent of fragrance. They suffer not from maladies, nor does age steal away the freshness of youth. Whatever they desire is fulfilled; they can assume a thousand shapes, and they move at four fingers' breadth above the surface of the earth. They are of four classes:—

1. Bhavana-pati. The Jainas believe the earth to consist of seven tiers superimposed one above the other. The earth inhabited by mankind includes a space of 180,000 yojanas. The intervening region between one thousand yojanas and as many below, is the location of the Bhavana-patis. They are of ten* orders, each governed by two rulers, one for the northern, the other for the southern region. The colour, appearance, raiment, food and modes of life of each are separate. Their duration of life extends between a minimum of ten thousand and a maximum of an ocean (ságara) of years, and this is considered the lowest order of all.

2. Vyantara. These inhabit a region extending between a thousand yojanas above and a hundred below, and they pass likewise into the sphere allotted to men. They are of sixteen orders, each governed by two rulers. Their age extends from ten thousand years to one palyopáma.*

3. Jyotishka. Their location is seven hundred and ninety yojanas above the level the earth, and one hundred and ten yojanas is its eastern* limit. They consist of five orders (of luminaries), the first are stars: the second, suns throned at a distance of ten yojanas above the stars: the third are moons, eighty yojanas higher than the suns: the fourth, constellations of twenty-eight mansions: the fifth, planets at an altitude of four yojanas above the mansions, eighty-eight in number. Of these the five most important are Mercury, Venus, Jupiter, Mars and Saturn with an interval of three yojanas in altitude between them severally. The duration of life of each of the five, ranges between the eighth part of a palya at the lowest, to one palya and a hundred thousand years as an extreme limit.

4. Vaimánika. Their abode is the highest of all, and they are of two orders. The first, kalpupapanna, (existing age), dwell in twelve zones of heaven each with a special presiding deity, but four have (only) two regents. These ten principalities possess ten illustrious distinctions, (1) a just prince, (2) a capable minister, (3) a benevolent sage, (4) loyal counsellors, (5) sword bearers, (6) guards, (7) commanders of seven armies of elephants, horses, chariots, bulls, footmen,* sword players and musicians, (8) administrators of state, (9) news reporters, and (10) sweepers. This sublime order is said to dwell at a little less than the distance of a ráju* in altitude. The second order is kalpátíta (past age). They do not occupy themselves with others, but keep aloof from friend­ship, enmity, governance and subjection, and are engaged only in con­templation of the Deity. Above these again are twelve abodes of rest in nine tiers,* one above another, and five others like a face, two above, and one below and one between, making fourteen tiers in all.

They consider the world to be composed of three spheres.* (1). Manusha-loka, nine hundred yojanas from the lowest extremity of the earth to nine hundred above. This is the sphere of men. The earth is said to be one ráju in length and the same in breadth, and within 4,500,000 yojanas of this space, mankind dwell. Below this is (2). Patála-loka. Its extent is nine hundred yojanas less than seven rájus. The second is twice the size of the first, and to each tier is added a ráju so that the seventh is some­thing less than seven rájus. (3). Svarga-loka is the celestial region, and is a little less than seven rájus high. Its inhabitants possess five organs of sense. Among them the Vaimánikas dwell in twenty-six orders which represent paradise. They attain to these bodies and enjoy happiness through good works. Eight orders of Vaimánikas dwell within five rájus, and four in the sixth ráju. Fourteen orders of the inferior class occupy one ráju. A ráju is the distance traversed by an iron ball of three and a half Akbari ser's weight, thrown downwards and continuing to fall for a period of six months six days and twelve ghaṛis. It is said that for six karoh above the twenty-six orders aforesaid, there is a circular area like crystal.* Its length is 4,500,000 yojanas and its breadth the same, with a height of eight yojanas. After traversing a distance of three and five-sixth of a Karoh upwards, the sacred haven of final liberation is reached where men are absorbed in the divinity as light in light.

The ages of the gods extend from something less than a palyopama to not more than a Ságara.* The four classes of deities including two orders of the Vaimániḳas have a stature of seven cubits; the third and fourth are of six cubits; the fifth and sixth, of five; the seventh and eighth, of four; from the ninth to the twelfth, of three: from the thirteenth to the twenty-first of two, and from the twenty-second to the twenty-sixth of one cubit, but all of them possess the power of assuming various shapes. All the deities are said to have the desire of food, but it is not taken by the mouth, as they are satisfied by mere volition. Each of the deities who arrives at the age of ten thousand years, requires food every other day, and breathes once during the time in which a healthy man would breath forty-nine times. Those whose age extends beyond this term to one Ságara, eat once between a minimum and maximum of three and nine days and breathe once between four and eighteen gharis. Those who live beyond the period of a Ságara, eat once after a thousand years, and breathe once in fifteen days. Such as live to a still greater term than this, for each Ságara, allow upwards of a thousand years to elapse before they touch food, and in the same proportion of time, increasing intervals of fifteen days pass before a breath is drawn. They also believe that all the deities including two orders of the fourth class, (the Vaimánika), have sexual intercourse after the manner of man­kind, but pregnancy does not take place: the third and fourth orders by conjunction and the sense of touch: the fifth and sixth by sight, and the seventh and eighth, by hearing; four other orders, by mere effort of imagination, while fourteen orders of the second class are innocent of this intercourse. These are said to attain to this eminence by good works. Extraordinary legends are told of these beings, of which let this little from among much be a sufficiency.

The mundane (manushya), consists of (souls) of two kinds:—(1). Saṃjña, possessing the power of apprehension, and (2). Asaṃjña, without power of apprehension. The latter appear (as animalcula) in the flesh, blood and saliva of men and do not live more than the space of two ghaṛis. The Saṃjña class is sub-divided into two. The Jainas apportion the earth into two parts, and assign one to each division. In the first, commands and prohibitions are in full force, and happiness and misery are the recompense of good and evil actions. Fifteen considerable portions of the earth are allotted to this division.

The Jainas believe that during the six aras, the extent of which has been mentioned in a former section, twelve Chakravartís successively appear. Thirty-two thousand kingdoms are beneath his sway, and thirty-two thousand princes are subject to him. He possesses 8,400,000 elephants and as many horses and chariots. He has likewise fourteen thousand ministers of state, nine hundred and thirty millions of footmen, eighty thousand sages, three hundred thousand cuirassiers, five hundred thousand torch-bearers, thirty millions of musicians, sixty-four thousand wedded wives, one hundred and twenty-eight thousand female slaves, sixteen thousand mines of gems, nineteen thousand mines of gold and twenty-eight thousand of other minerals, sixteen thousand provinces of barbarians (mlechchhas), that is, of races foreign to his institutions, thirty-two thousand capital cities, sixteen thousand royal residencies, three hundred and sixty millions of cooks for the royal table,* and three hundred and sixty for his private service.* Many other endowments are attributed to him. The first cycle of these began with Rájá Bharata (Chakravarti), son of A´dinátha. Some of these on account of their good works, are translated to heaven while others go down to hell. They assert that nine other individuals are born, entitled Vásudevas, which is a rank possessing half the powers of a Chakravartí, and they believe that these dignitaries descend into a hell, and that Kṛishṇa is among their number. Nine other persons, designated Baladevas, are said to exist who possess half the powers of a Vásudeva.* Over all these, the Tirthan­kara, who will be presently described, is the supreme head. Much has been written regarding the denizens of this sphere.

There is another extensive region, where its people have garments of the leaves of its trees* and their food is wild fruits or the sweet verdure produced by its soil. They are beautiful of countenance and pleasing in disposition. Their stature varies from one to three karoh, in height. One son or daughter is born to them after which they die. They are called Juglyah* and when they grow to adolescence, they marry, and their duration of life extends from one to three palyopama.

It is said that those who have not been charitable in deed, nor practised good works, pass after death among this race, and obtain the recompense thereof and bear no burden of pain.

The Nárakis, like the devatás, can assume various shapes and many of their conditions, but their aspect is terrible and always in dejec­tion and gloom. In the six degrees in which hell is said to be divided, they are agitated in burning torment, and though in agony are ever maleficent and from innate wickedness torture each other.

The class called Bhavana-pati have ingress to three degrees of this sphere and are the ministers of chastisement to these fiends. The stature of the dwellers in the first degree is from three to thirty one cubits and six fingers, and their age between ten thousand years and one Ságara. The stature of those in the second degree is double that of the first, and this proportion of increase runs through the remaining degrees: the dura­tion of life in the second degree is from one to three Ságaras. The age of the denizens of the third degree extends from a minimum of three Ságaras and attains to a maximum of seven: of the fourth, from seven to ten; of the fifth, to seventeen; of the sixth, to twenty-two; and of the seventh,* to thirty-three.

Tiryagyoni signifies the rest of the animal creation and is three-fold:— (1). aquatic: (2). terrestrial: (3). aerial. The first named order is five-fold, viz., (1). acquatic animals like the Súśmár,* which resemble men, elephants and horses &c.; (2). fishes of various kinds: (3). the tortoise: (4). the Karáh,* an animal in the shape of a tent-rope, four yards long and more, which twines itself round the legs of elephants and other animals and prevents their getting out of the water: (5). the crocodile.

The second order is of three kinds: quadrupeds like cattle: those that creep on their bellies, as snakes: and such as can move upon two feet like the weasel.

The third order is of four kinds: two domesticated with man, viz., whose pinions are of feathers, like the pigeon, or of skin, like the bat; and two others that fly in the blissful abodes of the gods, each of which is described with its peculiar characteristics, and many circumstances are related of them. The duration of life in the first class is from two ghaṛis* to one púrva which is equal to seventy kṛors of lakhs and fifty-six thousand kṛors of years. (70,560,000,000,000). The second and third classes in their mini­mum are like the first, but the second does not extend beyond three palyo­pama, while the third has no determinate limit. They assert that the duration of age among such as have but one sense, if formed of the subtile elements, is two ghaṛis, and the gross body of the earth does not endure above twenty-two thousand years, nor that of water, above seven thousand; nor of fire, above three days, nor of wind, above three thousand years. Such as have two organs of sense live twelve years; such as possess three organs, forty-nine days, and four organs, six months. The animal creation pos­sessing five organs of sense together with mankind have a life of three palyopama, while the Nárakis and devatás live thirty-three Ságaras but not beyond this term.

In the interchange of embodiment of these four* classes, they allow twenty-four habitations to the soul which enters into air, fire, water, earth, the vegetable creation of two, three and four organs of sense, quad­rupeds born of the womb, the ten classes of the infernal regions, the Bha­vanapati, Vyantara, Jyotishka, Vaimánika, men and devatás. After death, it enters into one of the following five, viz., mankind, the animal creation with five organs of sense, water, earth, and vegetable forms. The souls of men may come and go through twenty-two forms and when they pass into air or fire, no more assume human shape. Hell-bodies may assume two forms, those of men or of animals with five senses born of the womb, and their lives like those of the Juglyah* class are not of any considerably length, nor do they ever enter paradise. Those of the seventh degree of hell, do not even enter human bodies, but each of the (other) three kinds of animals having five organs of sense, have entry and exit through all the twenty-four habitations.*

The arithmeticians of this sect apply the term laksha to one hundred thousand, which the vulgar pronounce lakh. Ten lakhs make a prayuta,* and ten prayutas are termed a koṭi, called generally a kṛor. One hundred kṛors make an arba (Ṣansk-arbuda), and ten arba a kharba, and ten kharbas a nikharba,* ten nikharbas, a mahá-saroja,* called also padma. Ten padmas make a ´Sankha, ten ´Sankha, a Samudra, called also Korákor.

They state that if of a seven day's child of the Juglyah age, the hair, being four thousand and ninety-six times as thick as the hair of the Delhi people, be taken and cut up till further sub-division be impracti­cable, and a well, four kaṛoh in length, breadth and depth, be filled with such particles, and a single one of the aforesaid particles be taken out of the well at the expiry of each hundred years till the well be emptied, this period would constitute a palyopama. The lapse of ten Samudra of a palyopama constitutes a Ságara.

Having now discussed the first of the (six) objects classed under Prameya, I briefly mention the other five. The second, A´káśa, ether, is a subtile substance, eternal and all-pervading, possessing neither intelligence nor soul. The third, kála, time, is a substance like the preceding, but not all-pervading. It circumscribes the terrestrial abode of man. The fourth Pudgala* (matter or substance), is four-fold. If not divisible (atomic), nor compounded with another body, it is called pramáṇa, and if in conjunction, pradeśa. When, several pradeśa unite, they are called deśa, and the con­junction of several deśas is termed śkandha.* The first is accounted eter­nal and has five qualities, colour, odour, phlegm, and two out of eight opposite states of gravity or tenuity, rigidity or softness. heat or coldness, greediness or its contrary.* The fifth is Dharmástikáya, (the predicament virtue). It is a substance by the instrumentality of which, the rational soul and mind (manas), and matter (pudgala), are capable of movement, as a fish by means of water. The sixth is Adharmástikáya (the predica­ment vice). This is a substance, quiescent, and favourable to repose.* In some works there is mention of nine first principles called tattvas, viz., (1). Jíva,* soul; (2). Ajíva, the contrary to this, as ether, time, &c.; (3). Punya; (4). Pápa. By the conjunction of a multiplicity of matter and soul-forms, joy and sorrow, ease and pain are produced and this conjunction is termed karman (works), and is also distinguished as prakṛiti.* All that is productive of virtue is called punya, and pápa is vice. Karman is eight-fold: (1).—Jṅnáná-varaṇiya (shrouding of knowledge), forms of matter that by their conjunction veil each of the five kinds of knowledge that have been noticed. (2). Darśana-varaṇíya (shrouding of study), shrouds apprehension by the five organs of sense. (3). Vedaníya (individual consciousness), conjunction of matter by means of which the soul is affected by joy or sorrow. (4). Mohanîya, (producing delusion), conjunction of atoms which causes good to be mistaken for evil and the reverse. (5). Áyus (age), conjunction of atoms on which depends the continuance of animal life. (6). Náman, (name), conjunction of things* which is the creative complement of genus, species and individual existence. (7). Gotra (race), the conjunction of atoms by which the soul assumes the forms of eminent and ignoble persons. (8). Antaráya (interference), conjunction of atoms by which men abstain from works, are unable to take nourishment, have no inclination for sexual intercourse, take no profit in trade nor practise liberality or mortification.

V. A´srava* (flow, movement), evil actions of five kinds, viz bodily injury, falsehood, theft, incontinence, unbridled desire.

VI. Saṃvara (stopping), is abstention from the above five actions.

VII. Bandha (bondage), is the union of matter with soul.

VIII. Nirjará is the gradual disruption of conjoined atoms by the mortification of the body.*

IX. Moksha, called also mukti, is the total disseverance of atoms, which cannot be attained without knowledge and works. As when a firo takes place in the dwelling of a lame and a blind man, neither of them alone can escape, but the blind man may take the lame on his back, and by the vision of the one and the movement of the other they both may reach a place of safety.

It is said that without the concurrence of three conditions, this great end cannot be secured: (1). knowledge of the Supreme Being: (2). the acquisition of a guide who makes no distinction between praise and blame, wounding and healing: (3). constancy in good works. These three take rise in obedience and service, by which knowledge is gained. This latter is the chief source of a passionless state (virága) which annihilates the impulse (ásvara) of the embodied spirit, whence proceeds the closing (saṃvara) of the passage to such impulses, and this again incites men to aus­terity whereby they are occupied in the mortification of the spirit and the body. This mortification is of twelve kinds:—(1). not to eat at particular times. Formerly abstinence from solid food for a whole year was practised, and by some for nine months, but in these days six months is the longest duration: (2). to eat sparingly, and to beg for food from not more than five houses, and to fast till the next day if none be forthcoming, and to abstain from five things: viz., milk, curds, butter, oil of sesame and sweets*: (3). mortification of the body in enduring the sun's heat: (4). to take rest on hot sand, (5). to endure nakedness in cold: (6). to draw up the arms and legs and sit on the haunches. They say that it requires a long time before these six practices can be successfully accomplished, and many fail in their performance.

Regarding the expiation of sins, strange penances are prescribed for each transgression, such as, obedience to the religious director; service of ascetics; reading of voluminous books; bowing the head in meditation. This latter must not be for less than two ghaṛis, and some among former devo­tees continued it for twelve years: to stand with the arms hanging down. and to refrain from movement. These six exercises quickly lead to per­fection.

There are forty-five great texts among this sect, of which twelve are termed Angas, considered to be sacred books. (1). A´cháránga, rule of conduct for ascetics. (2). Sútrakṛitánga,* containing three hundred and sixty precepts of devotees and demonstrations of each. (3) Sthánánga, in which from one to ten (acts) essential to purity are enumerated, beginning with one, applicable to the upper and lower worlds, and so throughout the series to ten. (4). Samaváyánga; herein from ten to ten millions are enumerated and divers other truths. (5). Bhagavatyánga; this contains thirty-six thousand questions put by Gautama to Mahádeva* and the answers thereto. (6). Jṅnátádharmakathá, containing thirty-five million ancient legends. (7). Upásakadaśá, an account of ten devotees of Maha­deva.* (8). Antakṛiddaśá, on those who have attained the eternal beatitude of liberation. (9). Anuttaropapáti-kadaśánga,* on the blessed who for their good works have passed into the twenty-sixth degree of paradise. (10). Praśnavyákaraṇánga, mentions various works, the source of good and evil acts. (11). Vipákaśrutánga, former consequences of actions, which having borne the recompense of good and evil are forever laid to rest. (12). Chaudah-púrvánga (anga of fourteen Púrvas), contain­ing questions that concern mankind generally, with various reflections and classes of acts.

The twenty-four Tírthankaras having in these deliverances revealed the will of the Supreme Being, their successors collected them and reduced them to writing. Twelve of them are termed Upángas, in which the purport of the former books has been concisely recorded with some addi­tional matter. Four books are called Múla-Sútras, in which are given the usages of religious preceptors, the mode of begging, manner of life, mortification, worship of God and rules of composition. Six works are termed Chedda-grantha, on expiation of sin. Ten others are called Páinna,* explanation of the anatomy of the limbs, the manner of birth in animals, and all that takes place at the dissolution of elemental connection, and other subjects. Another work designated Nandi-Sútra, treats of the five kinds of knowledge, which have been already mentioned.

The devotees of this sect are called Yatis.* ´Sishya (disciple), is an inquirer who enters on this path. Ganeśa-śishya* is an ascetic who for six months at a stretch restrains the inordinate spirit within the prison of freedom from desire. If he eats one day, he fasts two, and defiles not his hand with milk, curds, butter, oil nor sweets. He eats only of a little parched wheat thrown into hot water, and begs for alms only from one house; his nights are spent till morn in prayer, and five hundred times during each night he prostrates himself in worship, and in the day reads the book of Bhagavati.*

The Pravartaka (founder), has much the same character, but on account of his zeal and experience is nominated by the chief religious authority of the time over the pilgrims in this desolate wilderness, to super­intend their daily actions and appoint suitable penance for such as are indolent and inclined to ease. The Sthávira (elder), is an assistant to the preceding who controls the refractory and aids the languishing. The Ratnádhika, or Paṇíyása as he is also called, is zealous in the service of God wherever duty calls and thither speeds to remedy disorder: he also prepares the place for the A´chárya or spiritual teacher, and has the care of his garments and the settlement of disputes among the ascetics is com­mitted to him. The Upádhyáya (sub-teacher), has nearly the same rank as an Áchárya, and the disciples verify under his direction the words of the sacred texts and the questions thereto appertaining. These teachers possess nothing of their own but the garments which will be particularised later. The A´chárya is a personage of a genial disposition, reverent of aspect, pleasant of speech, gráve, learned and benevolent. He must be acquainted with the proofs of the doctrines of his sect, and learned in the precepts of the other eight schools and skilled to refute them, and no treatise should be unknown to him. The burden of the care of his flock lies upon his shoulders, and to promote the welfare of his institute must be his chief aim. Garments and books that are in excess of ordinary requirements are in his keeping for supply at need to inquirers of this road. The Gaṇadhara by fullness of knowledge and good works arrives at an exalted degree of wisdom, and possesses the eight miraculous endowments mentioned in the Pátañjala system. He is the representative of the Jina. The Jina who is also called Tírthankara (creating a passage through the circuit of life), surpasses this dignity and attains omniscience, is beautiful of countenance, and perfect in the moral order. His breath is redolent with fragrance and his words full of wisdom. His flesh and blood are white, and none has ever seen him eat or defecate. Neither sickness nor sweat nor dirt contaminate his holy person. His nails and hair grow not long. His words fall so harmoniously that every listener might deem that his speech was music. In whatsoever land he resides, snakes, scorpions and other venomous reptiles disappear, neither excess nor deficiency in rainfall occurs, and war, pestilence and drought cease. When he moves abroad, the trees are voiceful in praise, and many ministering spirits attend to guard him. It is said that his beatified soul is imprisoned in the ventricular cavity of his form by a special connection, and in contradistinction to men in general, he is illumined by three kinds of apprehension, obtains cognition through the organs of sense and mind (manas) and the purport of all books is laid open to him. He discerns all that has form whether far or near, and after being born, and through the discipline of austerities, he becomes cognisant of the secret thoughts of men and arrives at the sublime degree of omniscience. These qualities belong to the whole twenty-four Tírthankaras of whom mention has been made.

The ascetics of this body have no intercourse with women, and avoid the spot where the sound of her voice is heard. They abstain from meat, fruit and sweemeats. They cook no food in their own dwellings, and at the meal-time of others, they approach a house and there stand and announce themselves by the words, “dharma lábha” that is, ‘he who doeth good, receiveth a reward,” and without importunity, take whatever of daily cooked food is brought. They may not take away* milk, oil and rice together for food, and without being covetous of the taste thereof must speedily swallow their meal. And they must not knowingly accept food cooked especially for them or for the sake of mendicants in general, nor which has been brought from out of a dark room, nor fetched by mounting from a low to an elevated place, nor for which the lock of a door has been opened nor brought out having been previously purchased.* They drink nothing but warm water and do not eat or drink* during the night. They never light a lamp nor have a fire in the house in which they dwell. They may not pick up any thing fallen nor wash any member of the body but that which is actually soiled. They must avoid avarice and anger, and abstain from falsehood, from injury to life and from theft, and may have no worldly goods, but only necessary raiment. This, in other than winter time, consists of three robes. One of these is used as a loin cloth, a second thrown over the shoulder like a belt and the third worn over the uncovered head.* In winter a special woollen garment is added. They have also a cloth a little more than a span and a half in length and breadth which they keep folded in four. This is placed over the mouth when reading and the two ends are stuffed into the ears so that no insect may enter and be injured, nor the person nor the book be defiled by saliva. They also carry a Dharmadhvaja* made of woollen hairs like a tassel, bound with scarlet cloth and fixed in a wooden handle. As they constantly sit on the ground, they first gently sweep it with both hands that nothing may remain beneath. The elders of this sect, who have been briefly mentioned, spread an old woollen cloth by way of carpet, and spend their days profitably in fasting and good works. Every six months they pull out the hairs of their head with their hands and nails, and go barefoot among thorns and stony places, but in the rainy season they do not stir abroad.*

The laity of this sect are called ´Srávaka. They observe, firstly, the following twelve rules. I. Never to injure the innocent. II. To avoid (the following) five kinds of untruths which are accounted great falsehoods; (1) false testimony, (2) breach of trust, (3) regarding land, (4) in praise and and blame of others, (5) concerning a cow. III. Not to stain their hands with dishonesty. IV. Not to look upon the wife of another. V. To be content with a moderate share of worldly goods. VI. To give the sur­plus in charity. VII. On journeys, to move stated distances. VII. To determine the daily need of food and other necessaries, and to live accord­ingly. IX. Not to approach a spot where a satí has taken place or a robber executed. X. To set apart two or three ghaṛis of the twenty-four hours, and with complete detachment of heart to employ these in devo­tion to the bountiful Creator. XI. At the hour of sleep to resolve on absten­tion from further food, and effacing the suggestions of desire, to lay down to rest. XII. On the 8th, 14th, 15th, and 1st day of the 1st quarter of the moon, to abstain from food and drink throughout the day, and to feed the first beggar (met with) on the morn of the break of fast. The points aforesaid should be gone over every day and at the time of rest, and the conscience be therein examined.

The claim of rectitude of life in this austere sect is applicable to a man who fulfils the following conditions:—He should constantly listen to the reading of the sacred texts, perform works of charity, make a practice of praising the virtuous, defile not his tongue in disparagement of another, especially of temporal rulers. He should take in wedlock one who is his equal, and be ever in fear of committing sin. He should conform to the laws of the land wherever he abides, and should so choose his dwelling that it be not public to every passer-by, nor yet so secluded that none can dis­cover it, and it should not have more than two or three doors. He should choose good neighbours and associate only with the virtuous. He should be dutiful to his father and mother, and avoid a city or a province invaded by foreign troops. He must regulate his expenses in accordance with his income, and make his dress conform to the same standard. He must be assiduous in reading the divine books, and avoid an unrestrained spirit in the regulation of his life.* He must take his meals at stated times, and observe due measure in his regard for worldly wealth, and the get­ting thereof and attachment thereunto, and should be zealous in hospitality to a guest, an ascetic, and in the care of the sick. He should not be self-opiniated, nor a lover of his own speech. He must prize learning. He must not journey out of season, nor into a country where he cannot practise his religion, nor enter into a quarrel without discerning his ally from his enemy. He must sympathize with his kindred, and be provident and far-sighted, and recognize the claims of gratitude, and so bear himself in his outward conduct that men may hold him in regard. He must be modest, gentle and courteous in demeanour, and exert himself in the interests of others, and subduing his internal enemies, hold his five senses under the control of reason.

The prohibitions to be observed by both the ascetics and the laity are, to abstain from flesh-meat, wine, honey, butter, opium, snow, ice, hail, everything that grows beneath the earth, fruits whose names are unknown, or that contain small seeds, and from eating at night.

The Jaina institutes recognize two orders, the Svetambaras (clad in white), and Digambaras (sky-clad). The latter wear no clothes and go naked. According to the Digambaras, a woman cannot attain final liberation.* They say that when any one arrives at the sublime degree of mukti, he needs no food till he dies. They are at one with the Svetambaras on many points. The writer has met with no one who had personal knowledge of both orders and his account of the Digambaras has been written as it were in the dark, but having some acquaintance with the learned of the Svetambara order, who are also known as ´Sewra* he has been able to supply a tolerably full notice. From ancient times, throughout the extent of Hindustan, the Bráhmans and Jains have been the repositories of knowledge and ceremonial observance, but from short­sightedness have held each other in reproach. The Bráhmans worship Kṛishna as a deity, while the Jainas relegate him to service in hell. The Bráhmans deem it better to face a raging elephant or a ravening lion than to meet with one of this sect. His Majesty, however, in his earnest search after truth, has partially dispelled the darkness of the age by the light of universal toleration, and the numerous sectaries, relinquishing their mutual aversion, live in the happy accomplishment of a common harmony.