DESCRIPTION OF THE NINE SCHOOLS.

Naiyáyika is one who is versed in the Nyáya philosophy. Vaiśeshika treats likewise of philosophy and its professors will be later on noticed. Vedántí is one who is conversant with the Vedánta System. Mímaṃsaka is a follower of the Mímáṃsá philosophy. Sánkhya, Pátanjala, Jaina, Bauddha, Nástika. Each of these is distinct in its doctrine and their several principles will be hereafter explained. The Brahmans consider the last three as heretical and they admit no philosophical systems beyond the first six which they term shaḍdarśana, that is, the six modes of knowledge. The Nyáya and Vaiśeshika agree in many points, as do the Vedánta and Mimáṃsá, and the Sánkhya and the Pátanjala.

Nyáya. The founder of this school was the sage Gautama. It com­prises within its field, physiology, theology, mathematics, logic and dialectics Its followers hold the Supreme Being to be exempt from plurality, neither begotten nor begetting, incorporeal and free from all defect. He is without beginning as without end, the Creator, the Preserver, and they regard Him as pure Spirit: but they assert that he created a bodily form and united Himself thereto in a determinate manner; and as the body is capable of action through its union with the soul, so does this corporeal form energize in union with the Deity without sullying the robe of its inviolable sanctity. This doctrine is akin to that of the Christians. The appellations of divinity are conceded to it, but it is not believed to be from all eternity. The Creator of the world, through the instrumentality of this Being, revealed His words unto men, and this revelation they call Veda. It consists of upwards of one hundred thousand verses (śloka) each of which comprises four feet (charaṇa) each foot being of not less than eight or more than twenty-six letters (Akshara). In this book it does not exceed twenty. An akshara consists of either one or two letters: if of two, the last is quies­cent. A holy man named Vyása divided this book into four parts to each of which he assigned a separate name, viz., the Ṛigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda. These four are considered divine books. Some assert that the First Being had four mouths from each of which a Book issued. Every Brahma who appears, wonderful to relate, delivers the same letters and words without diminution or addition.

They maintain that God is the absolute Efficient Cause and that the works of men are produced by these two sources of causation, (viz., God and Brahma). The moral distinctions of good and evil in actions are deduced from the divine Books. They believe in hell and heaven. The former they term Naraka and locate it in the lower region. The latter is called Svarga and is assigned to the celestial region. They do not believe in a perpetual duration of existence in either paradise or hell, but that men in the measure of their evil deeds may descend into hell and receive condign punishment, and thence coming forth assume other bodies, and for their good works obtain happiness in heaven, and again issuing from it, return into new forms: thus they will come and go until they have fully received the recompense or punishment of their former deeds, after which freed from the necessity of these two states, they will be liberated from joy and sorrow as will be hereafter related.

Some believe that portions of the world are from eternity and that some are created, as will be afterwards mentioned. They assign eight attributes to the Deity which they call accidents. 1. Gyána, omniscience, by which He knows the future and the past, all that is secret or manifest, in whole and in part, and ignorance and forgetfulness cannot approach Him. 2. Ichchhá, will. All things at His pleasure are created or fall into nothingness. 3. Prayatna, providential order and the due procession of causes so that existence and non-existence may have their realisation. 4. Saṅnkhyá, numerical series, and this is of three kinds, unity, duality and excess of these. The first named is an attribute of the Almighty. 5. Pramáṇa, extent, and this is of four kinds as will be hereinafter men­tioned. As they believe God to be omnipresent, his extent must be infinite. 6. Pṛithaktva, severalty and individuality. As of Saṅnkhya, this is of three kinds, the first being a Divine attribute. 7. Samyoga, co-inherence, because all things unite in Him. 8. Vi-bhága, disjunction. The last six of these are accounted to have been from all eternity.

Sixteen subjects called predicaments (padártha),* are discussed by this system and these topics comprise all the objects of thought. Although it does not strictly proceed beyond the second, nor, indeed, beyond its subordinate classification of Artha, yet a few details are here set down for information.