“The frontiers of Persia were the most formidable of frontiers to the Arabs, and those which inspired in their minds the greatest respect and fear, so that they were loath to attack them, but rather avoided them out of respect for the state of the Persian kings, and because of what was generally believed as to their power to subdue other nations. And thus it continued until the latter days of Abú Bakr, when there rose up a man of the Companions named al-Muthanná son of Ḥáritha, who incited the people to give battle to the Persians, making light of the matter and inspiring them with courage therein. So a number of them responded to his appeal, and men remembered what the Apostle of God had promised them in respect to the taking possession of the treasures of the Persian kings. But naught was effected in the matter during the Caliphate of Abú Bakr.

“But during the time of 'Umar ibnu 'l-Khaṭṭáb, al-Muthanná ibn Ḥáritha wrote to him informing him of the troubled state of Persian affairs, and of the accession of Yazdigird the son of Shahriyár to the throne, and of his youth; for he was but twenty-one years of age at the time of his accession.

“Then the eagerness of the Arabs to attack Persia was increased, and 'Umar went forth with the army outside Madína, the people knowing not whither he would go, and no man daring to question him concerning aught; until at length one inquired of him once as to the time of their departure, but got nothing from his question save a rebuke.

“Now it was their habit when any matter troubled them, and they must needs get information concerning it, to seek aid from 'Uthmán ibn 'Affán, or 'Abdu'r-Raḥmán ibn 'Awf; and, when the matter was very urgent to them, they added unto these al-'Abbás. So 'Uthmán said to 'Umar, ‘O Commander of the Faithful, what tidings have reached thee, and what dost thou intend?’ Then 'Umar called the people to public prayer, and they assembled round him, and he announced the news to them, and exhorted them, and urged them to attack the Persians, making light of the enterprise; and they all consented willingly. Then they asked him to go with them in person, and he answered, ‘I will do so unless a better plan than this should appear.’ Then he sent for those who were wisest in council and most eminent among the Companions and most prudent, and summoned them before him, and sought counsel of them, and they advised that he should remain and should send one of the chief men of the Companions, remaining behind himself to strengthen him with support. Then, should they be victorious, the end would be attained, while if the man perished, he would send another.

“So when they had agreed to this plan, 'Umar ascended the pulpit; for it was their custom, when they wished to address the people collectively, that one of them should ascend the pulpit and harangue them on that subject whereon he desired to speak. So when 'Umar had mounted the pulpit he said, ‘O people, verily I was resolved to march forth with you, but the wise and prudent amongst you have turned me from this plan, suggesting that I should abide here and send one of the Companions to undertake the conduct of the war.’ Then he asked their advice as to whom he should send; and at this juncture a letter was handed to him from Sa'd ibn Abí Waqqáṣ, who was absent on some employ; and they recommended him to 'Umar, saying, ‘He is a very lion in attack.’ And this proposal met with 'Umar's approval, and he summoned Sa'd, and conferred on him the chief command in 'Iráq, and entrusted unto him the army.

“So Sa'd marched forth with the people, and 'Umar accompanied them for some parasangs; then he exhorted them and incited them to the holy war, and bade them farewell, and returned unto Madína. But Sa'd, continuing his march, shifted his line of advance into the desert which lies between the Ḥijáz and Kúfa, seeking intelligence, and receiving constant messages and letters from 'Umar, who kept advising him with plan after plan and strengthening him with successive reinforcements, until he finally decided to march on Qádisiyya, which was the gate of the Persian Empire.

Now when Sa'd halted at Qádisiyya, he and those who were with him were in need of provisions, so he sent out some of his men, com­manding them to bring in some sheep and cattle. The people of Sawád feared their advance, but they found a man and questioned him about sheep and cattle. But he replied, ‘I have no knowledge concerning this;’ and behold, he was himself a herdsman who had concealed his beasts in a place of security thereabouts. Then, as they relate, a bull amongst them cried out, ‘The herdsman lies! Lo, here we are in this enclosure!’ So they entered in and drove out therefrom a number of cattle, and brought them to Sa'd. And they augured well from this incident, accounting it a sign of help from God Almighty. For even though the bull did not speak actual words to give the lie to the herdsman, none the less did its lowing at this juncture, whereby they were guided to the cattle when they were so grievously in need of them, clearly give the lie to the herds­man. And this was one of those remarkable coincidences which presaged victory and empire, and wherefrom they were justified in auguring well.

“Now when the news of Sa'd's advance with his army reached the Persians, they despatched against him Rustam at the head of thirty thousand warriors, the Arab army consisting of only some seven or eight thousand men, though afterwards they were reinforced by others. And when the two armies met, the Persians were laughing at the spears of the Arabs, which they compared to spindles;* à propos of which I may relate an anecdote of a similar character which there is no harm in introducing here. Falaku 'd-Dín Muḥammad the son of Aydamir related to me as follows: ‘I was in the army of the lesser Dawídár* when he marched forth to meet the Tatars* on the western side of the City of Peace [Baghdad] on the occasion of that most grievous catastrophe which befell it in the year A.H. 656 [= A.D. 1258]. We met at Nahr Bashír, one of the tributaries of the Little Tigris; and from our side would go forth to challenge an adversary a horseman mounted on an Arab horse and wholly clad in mail, as though he and his horse were a mountain in solidity. Then there would come out to meet him from the Mongols a horseman mounted on a horse like unto an ass, and holding in his hand a spear like unto a spindle, unclad and unarmed, so that all who beheld him laughed at him. Yet ere the day was done the victory was theirs, and they scattered us in a dire defeat which was the key of disaster, so that then there happened what happened in this matter.’

“Then ambassadors passed between Rustam and Sa'd; and the Arab of the desert would come to Rustam's door as he sat on a throne of gold, supported by gold-embroidered cushions in a room carpeted with gold-embroidered carpets, the Persians wearing crowns and making display of their ornaments, and the elephants of war standing on the outskirts of the assembly. So the Arab would approach with his spear in his hand, girt with his sword and carrying his bow across his shoulders, and would tie up his horse near to Rustam's throne. Then the Persians would cry out at him and endeavour to prevent him, but Rustam would stay them; and the Arab would approach him, walking towards him leaning on his spear, pressing therewith on the carpet and cushions and tearing them with its spike, while the Persians looked on. And when the Arab came unto Rustam he would answer him back, and Rustam continually heard from them wise words and replies which astonished and affrighted him. Thus, for instance, Sa'd used to send a different ambassador each time; and Rustam inquired of one so sent, ‘Why do they not send to us him who was with us yesterday?’ ‘Because,’ answered the other, ‘our Amír deals equitably with us both in woe and weal.’ Another day he asked, ‘What is this spindle in thy hand?’ meaning his lance. ‘The smallness of a burning coal,’ replied the other, ‘is no hurt to it.’ To another he said on another occasion, ‘What ails your sword that I see it so worn?’ ‘Worn of sheath, keen of blade,’ retorted the Arab. So these things and the like which Rustam saw alarmed him, and he said to his retainers, ‘Behold, the pretensions of these people are either true or false. If they be false, then a people who guard their secrets thus carefully, differing in naught, and agreed with such accord in the concealment of their secret that none discloseth it, is assuredly a people of great strength and power. But if they be true, then can none withstand them.’ Then they cried out round him, saying, ‘We conjure thee by God not to abandon aught which thou holdest by reason of anything which thou hast seen on the part of these dogs! Rather be firm in thy resolve to do battle with them.’ Then said Rustam, ‘This is my view which I tell you; but I am with you in whatsoever ye desire.’

“Then they fought for several days, on the last of which happened the veering of the wind against the Persians, so that the dust blinded them; and Rustam was slain, and his army was routed, and their possessions were plundered, and the Persians, stricken with panic, sought the fords of the Tigris that they might pass to the eastern shore. But Sa'd pursued them, and crossed the fords, and inflicted on them another great slaughter at Jalúlá, and plundered their possessions, and took captive a daughter of the Persian King's.

*

“Then Sa'd wrote to 'Umar to inform him of the victory. And during these days 'Umar was anxiously on the watch for tidings of the army, so that every day he used to go forth outside Madína on foot seeking for news, that perchance one might arrive and inform him of what had happened to them. So when he who brought the good tidings from Sa'd arrived, 'Umar saw him and called to him, ‘Whence comest thou?’ ‘From 'Iráq,’ answered he. ‘What of Sa'd and the army?’ inquired 'Umar. Said the other, ‘God hath rendered them victorious over all this;’ and 'Umar was walking by the side of the man as he rode on his camel, not knowing that this was 'Umar. But when the people gathered round him, saluting him as Commander of the Faithful, the Arab recognised him and said, ‘Why did'st thou not tell me (may God be merciful to thee) that thou wert the Commander of the Faithful?’ ‘O my brother,’ replied 'Umar, ‘thou hast done naught amiss.’ Then 'Umar wrote to Sa'd, ‘Stay where thou art; pursue them not, but be satisfied with this; and make for the Muslims a place of refuge and a city wherein they may dwell, and set not a river betwixt me and them.’ So Sa'd made for them Kúfa, and traced out therein the plan of the Mosque, while the people marked out their dwellings; and he made it the capital of the province. And thus he obtained control over al-Madá'in* (Ctesiphon), and got possession of its treasures and stores.