There are three things which the authorities declare a king is particularly bound to observe. 1. The flourishing state of his treasury and kingdom. 2. Kindness and compassion to his subjects. 3. The rule of not devolving great charges upon petty men. Certain of the race of Sāssān, when asked what had led to the downfall of the dynasty of 4000 years,* replied — It was making over to low and petty persons great employments, proper only to intellect and talent. They likewise declare, that the fabric of equipoise may be securely reared upon ten moral bases: 1. That in every affair that comes before him he should suppose himself to be the subject and another the prince; and whatever he would hold impossible towards himself, he should hold inadmissible towards his people. 2. That he should allow no procrastination with necessitous parties, and be on his guard against the dangers therefrom resulting. It was the advice of Aristotle to Alexander, that if he wished for the Almighty’s support he should be quick to consider the cases of those who clamoured for justice. 3. That he should not waste his time in licentiousness and sensual gratification, this same being the most powerful cause of a kingdom’s ruin: rather let him take a portion from the period of repose and amusement to devote to the conduct of his dominions and the interests of his subjects. A wise man’s counsel to a king was this — “Slumber not in supineness, or those who are ruined by your administration will wake to carry their complaints to the courts of the Most High. Neither sleep to such a degree as to curtail your [active] life. For life and prosperity resemble the sunshine; on one wall at day-break, and on another at dusk. Let it be your aim to feast upon the world, rather than to let it feast on you.” 4. That he should lay the foundation of all his undertakings in courtesy and kindness, not in violence and anger. 5. That in satisfying the world his object should be to satisfy God. 6. That he should not attempt to satisfy the world in opposition to God. 7. That when men come to him for a decision, he should consult justice; and when they come to him for mercy, he should consult indulgence. For to show mercy to God’s creatures is the way to obtain mercy from God. We have it for a genuine saying, — “Those who are merciful God will have mercy upon.” “Show mercy to those who are on earth, and you will obtain mercy from him who is in heaven.” 8. That he incline to the society of the righteous, and flinch not from their counsel and exhortations. 9. That he maintain every one in the portion of his deserts. 10. That he hold it not sufficient himself to refrain from wrong, but so govern his kingdom that neither officers, soldiers, nor subjects may find means to wrong each other. For, according to the text, Each of you governs, and each shall be ques­tioned concerning his subjects, whatever occurs in his dominions owing to defective administration, he will be examined thereupon at the day of resurrec­tion. We are told that the commander of the faithful, Omar bin Abd Ulaziz,* who was noted for the perfection of equity and an extravagance of piety and purity of heart, insomuch that he was called the fifth Caliph, appeared to some one in a dream, and declared, when questioned what had been his lot, that he had been kept a year in purgatory,* because a goat had been hurt by putting its foot into a hole that had been accidentally left in a bridge. For this he was censured, and asked how he could justify such negligence in the maintenance and regu­lation of affairs, seeing that the interests of mankind were entrusted to the responsibility of his exertions.

The subjects, then, are to be urged to abide by the rules of equity, and to exert themselves in the acquisition of virtue. For even as the body stands by the nature, and the nature by the soul, and the soul by the understanding, does the city stand by the territory, the territory by the government, and the government by wisdom: which is the archetype of the Institute. As long as public affairs are in the course of the Institute, regularity is sure to prevail; but when it deviates from that sure guidance, the joy and prosperity of the kingdom is at an end. Plato says, “Maintain the law, and the law will maintain you.”

When it has become superfluous to insist any further on the interests of equity, the monarch may rein in his inflexible career, and incline to the side of bounty and benefaction.* For no quality is nobler than an inclination for these, as has been shown in its particulars elsewhere. Yet, even in his benefactions, observance must be paid to the measure of desert. For benefactions are the snare of dignity and pomp, often proving a sacrifice of majesty only to promote wantonness and increase cupidity in the subject; till the revenue of the whole kingdom, if lavished on one person, would prove insufficient to content him. Aristotle’s advice to Alexander was that he could not give the needy too little awe of him, or the soldiery and extortioners too much: the first, that they might be encouraged to make com­plaints; the second, that they might be deterred from occasioning them. His eminence the Prince of Prophets maintained his majesty at such a height, that when Abú Safiān, before his conversion to the faith, had occasion to visit him for purposes of treaty, he declared on his return that though he had seen many kings and many potentates, he never experienced from any of them so heartfelt an appre­hension and awe.* His courtesy was likewise so remarkable, that on one occasion, when a woman who had approached him with the intention of stating some of her necessities, found herself over­come by the terrors of his presence, he condescended to relieve her apprehension, by saying, that he too was the son of an Arab woman who fed upon an Arab’s food.* Haughtiness towards the haughty, and affability towards the lowly and dependent, are among the characteristic traits of generosity.*

Another of kingly observances it is, to keep their secrets concealed;* that they may be free to follow the dictates of thought and observation, and may secure themselves against the machinations of their enemies. His holiness the Sanctified, undefiled as he was in any department of his glorious nature by untruth, as soon as he had resolved on one of his holy expeditions, used to lead men to suppose that he was going somewhere else. His practice was even to inquire the route of a different place from that on which he had determined, and to ascertain all its particulars, until men fell into the supposition that his purpose was really in that direction. The authorities aver that the way to reconcile secrecy with the advantages of consultation is to debate matters with men of intellect and ability, and to cover them from men of weak understandings; and, even when the purpose is formed, to proceed in its execution by such actions as, to all appearance, are opposite to any such design. Neither is this course to be carried to excess, lest it engender sus­picion, but to be blended with actions really essential to the real purpose.

In inquiring into the affairs of enemies no kind of inattention should have place. Spies and informers should be employed to ascertain their proceedings, and their hidden circumstances should be deduced from their apparent ones. In gaining information as to their designs, it is an important principle mainly to direct inquiry to be made from such among their attendants as are noted for defect of sense. The best of all roads, indeed, is general conversation with every body. For there is no one who has not some confidential friend to whom his secrets are communicated, and of whom, as of all other men, the mental reservations are sure to transpire in the course of conversation.

As soon as enmity is found to prevail in any quarter, all practicable effort should be made to remove it by concessions, before it arrives at hostility and war; or, if this is not to be effected by concession, as long as by expedient and artifice it may be averted, arms should never be resorted to. Written artifice or falsehood, for the purpose of disconcerting enemies, is not considered culpable; but to give utterance to falsehood and treachery is inexcusable under any circumstances.*

If compelled to hostilities, the case must be one of two. Either he is the incipient, or the opposing party. If the incipient, his object should be unmixed good. For the interests of religion, undoubt­edly, or the enforcement of reprisals, or for some right clearly existing on his side, let his arms be taken up; not for conquest or for aggrandizement.* For the probability is, that the incipient will be worsted,* unless he fights for religion or for a right­ful claim. Neither let him give battle until his army are unanimous in their sentiments: for to be between two adversaries is exceeding hazardous. While it is practicable, the king should not carry on the war in person, for then, if defeated, the loss is irreparable; and if victorious, he can hardly fail to display some extravagance unbeseeming a prince’s majesty and weight.* If he is acting on the defen­sive, and strong enough to engage, let him attack the enemy by ambush or surprise: for those kings who are fought withal in their own territories are generally worsted.* If not strong enough to engage, he should be careful to prepare forts and entrenchments, without, however, placing entire reliance on these: for it is a maxim with the authorities, that “Every fort has been taken.” Rather let him exert himself for overtures of peace by the sacrifice of his treasures and a persevering urgency for alliance.

The person he selects to conduct the affairs of his army should possess three qualities: 1. A celebrity for bravery; 2. Good management and ability; 3. Experience and familiarity with war; the most important essential in this last being vigilance and care in ascertaining the enemy’s situation by means of expert spies, with attention to their zeal and emoluments while so employed. For to lead his troops and materiel into the chance of destruction and ruin, without a prospect of some evident advantage, is repugnant to sense.

Authorities likewise say he should not shut him­self up in forts and entrenchments, except in the last resort; for such steps are imputed to weakness, and give confidence to the enemy. When any one has distinguished himself by bravery in battle, he should go great lengths in loading that person with riches and honors; considering the richest gifts and fairest commendations to be only the due requital of such deeds. He is not to despise a lowly enemy; for, How many a scanty troop, by God’s leave, hath vanquished a numerous one!

Neither is conduct to stop short at victory. As long as it is practicable to take prisoners alive, they should not be killed. For many are the advantages which may redound from capture — servitude, par­don, ransom, all which tend at the same time to soften the hearts of the enemy, as the text of the Kurān declares. After victory, however, it is not even lawful to kill them, unless there is no other security against their machinations but killing. After conquest, enmity and resentment ought to have no place in their feelings; for, this being once completed, the enemies become vassals and subjects, to injure whom is manifestly opposed to the first principles of equity.* We are told, among other instances adduced by the wise, that when Alexander put to the sword the inhabi­tants of a city which he had taken, Aristotle wrote him a long letter, saying, that however excusable it might be to kill enemies before victory, he could have had none for putting them to death after it; that the exercise of clemency was pecu­liarly the virtue of the greatest kings; giving light­ness to the rivets of authority, and firmness to the foundations of their power. In fact, the more complete their ascendancy may be, the more their clemency becomes it.

The Caliph Māmoon, who adorned the shackles of the empire* as much as he consolidated its system, used to say that if men were aware of the delight it gave him to pardon, they would bring him their crimes for the choicest of offerings. In fact, human perfection lies in adopting the divine attributes; and, according to the text, Such is their nature also,* the original object of creating the world and man was the manifestation of the true and only real entity, in that divine compassion and clemency which demands the full scope of human weakness and imperfection for the display of its own excellence.* Insomuch, that we are told in one of the dicta, that if we were not to commit sin, the Almighty would create another race who would, in order that his uncalled for mercy might still find its glory reflected on the surface of unfathomable forgiveness. Man’s imitation of the principle of being and source of all good may be said, therefore, in some sort to have been accomplished, when he has won and worn the decorations of clemency.